胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第5-6章

Chapter5Meaning1.Semantics(语义学)Semanticsisthestudyofmeaningofthelinguisticunits,wordsandsentencesinparticular.(语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。)2.Meaningsof“meaning”1).Meaning:Meaningreferstowhatalanguageexpressesabouttheworldweliveinoranypossibleorimaginaryworld.（意义是指语言所表达的关于现实世界或者想象中的世界的想法。）2).Connotation:（内涵）Connotationmeansthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.(内涵指的是一个词所指称的实体的特征。)3).Denotation:（外延）Denotationinvolvestherelationshipbetweenalinguisticunitandthenon-linguisticentitytowhichitrefers.Thusitisequivalenttoreferentialmeaning.(外延涉及语言单位与非语言实体之间的关系。在这个意义上，它跟指称意义是一样的。)3.Thedifferencebetweenmeaning,concept,connotation,anddenotationMeaningreferstotheassociationoflanguagesymbolswiththerealworld.Therearemanytypesofmeaningaccordingtodifferentapproaches.Conceptistheimpressionofobjectsinpeople’smind.Connotationistheimpliedmeaning,similartoimplication.Denotation,likesense,isnotdirectlyrelatedwithobjects,butmakestheabstractassumptionoftherealworld.4.Thereferentialtheory1).DefinitionThetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitrefersto,orstandsfor,isknownasthereferentialtheory.(把词语意义跟它所指称或代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称理论)2).Thesemantictriangle（语义三角）OgdenandRichardspresentedtheclassic“SemanticTriangle”asmanifestedinthefollowingdiagram。Theconnection(representedwithadottedline)betweensymbolandreferentismadepossibleonlythrough“concept.”Concept/notion（概念）Thought/reference----------------------SymbolobjectWordstandsforrealitySignifierreferentCode（词语）signified（事物）5.Senserelations（涵义关系）5.1SynonymySymbolizesReferstoSynonymyisthetechnicalnameforthesamenessrelation.5.2Antonymy（反义关系）Antonymyisthenameforoppositenessrelation.Therearethreesubtypes:gradable,complementaryandconverseantonymy.（反义关系是对立关系的专业术语，它包括三个此类：等级反义关系，互补反义关系和反向反义关系。）①.Gradableantonymy（等级反义关系）Gradableantonymyisthecommonesttypeofantonymy.Theyaremainlyadjectives,e.g.good/bad,long/short,big/small,etc.②.Complementaryantonymy（互补反义关系）Themembersofapairincomplementaryantonymyarecomplementarytoeachother.Thatis,theydivideupthewholeofasemanticfiledcompletely.Notonlytheassertionofonemeansthedenialoftheother,butthedenialofonealsomeanstheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive/dead,hit/miss,male/female,boy/girl,etc.(跟第一种反义关系相反，这种反义词的成员彼此互补。也就是说它们吧一个语义领域完全切分成两半。不但对一方的肯定意味着对另一方的否定，而且对一方的否定也意味着对另一方的肯定。)③.Converseantonymy（反向反义关系）Converseantonymsarealsocalledrelationalopposites.Thisisaspecialtypeofantonymyinthatthemembersofapairdonotconstituteapositive-negativeopposition.Theyshowthereversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities,e.g.buy/sell,parent/child,above/below,etc.（这是反义关系的一种特殊类型，因为其中的成员并不构成肯定或者否定的对立，而只表现两实体间的一种反向关系。这种反义关系典型地表现在两两相对的角色、亲属关系、时间和空间关系等方面；在这种意义上，它叫关系对立。）5.3Hyponymy(上下义关系)Hyponymyismeaninginclusivenessoramatterofclassmembership.Thatistosay,whenxisakindofy,thelowertermxisthehyponym,andtheuppertermyisthesuperordinate.（上下义关系是指意义内包关系或者说一种类与成员间的关系。位于这种意义关系上位的词语叫上坐标词；位于下位的是成员，叫下义词。）Twoormorehyponymsofthesameonesuperordinatearecalledco-hyponyms,e.g.underflower,therearepeony,jasmine,tulip,violet,rose,etc.,floweristhesuperordinateofpeony,jasmine,etc.,peonyisthehyponymofflower,andpeony,jasmine,tulip,violet,rose,etc.areco-hyponyms.（同下义词）5.4Homonymy(同音/同形异义关系)Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.(同音/同形异义关系是指不同意义的词具有相同的形式这一种现象，即不同的词发音或者拼写相同，或者发音和拼写都相同。)Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarecalledhomophones.(同音异义词)Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarecalledhomographs.(同形异义词)Whentwowordsareidenticalbothinsoundandspelling,theyarecalledcompletehomonyms.(完全同音同形词)5.5.Entailment(蕴含)Ifthatonesentenceistruegivesuscertainknowledgeofthetruthofthesecondsentence,thenthefirstsentenceentailsthesecondone.(如果知道一个句子的真假能够判断另一个句子的真假，那么第一个句子就蕴含了第二个句子。)Intermsoftruthvalue,thefollowingrelationshipsexistbetweenthetwosentencesifaentailsb:Whenaistrue,bisnecessarilytrue;(a真b真)Whenbisfalse,aisfalse;(b假a假)Whenaisfalse,bmaybetrueorfalse;(a假b或真或假)Whenbistrue,amaybetrue.(b真a或真或假)5.6.Presupposition(预设)Thespeakerorwriteralwaysassumesthatthehearerorreaderalreadyknowssomethingofwhatheisgoingtosayorwrite.This“something”oftenbecomesthepresuppositionofasentence.Intermsoftruthvalue,thefollowingrelationshipsexistbetweentwosentences:Whenaistrue,bisnecessarilytrue;(a真b一定真)Whenaisfalse,bisstilltrue;(a假b仍为真)Whenbistrue,acaneitherbetrueorfalse;(b真a或真或假)Whenbisfalse,notruthvaluecanbesaidabout.(b假，无真值可言)6.Componentialanalysis(成分分析法)Componentialanalysisdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents.Thatis,themeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.(成分分析法用语义成分来定义词汇，也就是说，一个词可以被分成语义特征。)Plusandminussignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsentinthemeaningofword.Therearesemanticunitssmallerthanthemeaningofaword.E.g.Boy:[+human][-adult][+male]Girl:[+human][-adult][-male]Son:child(x,y)&male(x)Daughter:child(x,y)&-male(x)Take:cause(x,(have(x,y)))Give:cause(x,(-have(x,y)))Chapter6LanguageProcessinginMind1.Psycholinguistics(心理语言学)1.1.cognition(认知)①Itreferstothementalprocessofanindivi