syntax

Lecture4Syntax2015/04/151OutlineWhatissyntax?Syntacticunits;SyntacticfunctionsSyntacticrelationsSyntagmaticrelation组合关系paradigmaticrelation聚合关系ImmediateconstituentanalysisEndocentricandExocentricConstructionsThegenerativeapproachtosyntax21.WhatisSyntax?SYNTAXisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructures.(Hu,73)SYNTAXisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.(Dai,42)3•词如何组织为句子•句子结构•制约句子结构的规则4Theword“syntax”,derivedoriginallyfromtheAncientGreeksýntaxis,ismadeupoftwomorphemes:synandtax.Theformermeans“together”andthelatter“toarrange”,hencetheliteralmeaning“asettingouttogether”or“arrangement”.Thecoreofsyntaxisthestudyofthestructuresofsentences.Differentlinguistictheoriesfirstdifferintheirtreatmentofsentencestructures.5Generally,therearefourmajorapproachestosyntaxThetraditionalapproachThestructuralapproachThegenerativeApproachThefunctionalapproach6sentencesareanalyzedintoclausesareanalyzedintophrasesareanalyzedintowordsareanalyzedintomorphemessentencesareusedtobuildclausesareusedtobuildphrasesareusedtobuildwordsareusedtobuildmorphemesHierarchicalsystem:(morpheme-)word-phrase--clause—sentence2.Syntacticunits7PhrasePHRASEisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclauses.thethreetallestgirls(nominalphrase)hasbeendoing(verbalphrase)extremelydifficult(adjectivalphrase)tothedoor(prepositionalphrase)veryfast(adverbialphrase)8ClauseAconstituentwithitsownsubjectandpredicate,ifitisincludedinalargersentence,isaCLAUSE.(1)Iwanttoknowwhy.(2)Havinganinfluentialfatherisoftenadvantageous.(3)DoyouknowwhereIcomefrom?finiteandnon-finiteclause(traditionalinfinitephrase,participialphraseandgerundialphrase)9SentenceTraditionally,theminimalformthatexpressesacompletethought现代语言学的句子定义深受美国结构主义语言学影响。语法中最大的语言单位/适用于句法规则的最大结构单位。一个独立的语言形式，不被任何语法结构包含在更大的语言形式中（Bloomfield,1933）。10Anindependentlinguisticform,notincludedbyvirtueofanygrammaticalconstructioninanylargerlinguisticform.(Bloomfield)句子通常包含至少一个主语及其谓语。根据句子包含的主谓成分的数量，句子分为：1.简单句(simplesentence)2.复合句(complexsentence)3.合成句/并列句(compoundsentence/coordinateclause)11SentencetypesinEnglishi)SVCMaryisanurse/poor.ii)SVAMaryweighs120pounds.iii)SVMarycame.iv)SVOMarycheatedme.v)SVOCMarycalledmeJim.vi)SVOAMaryputherchilddown.vii)SVOOMarylendhimsomemoney---夸克(RandolphQuirk1920—)123.SyntacticrelationsPositionalrelation(wordorder,horizontalrelations,syntagmaticrelations--Hjemslev;chainrelations--Halliday)Relationofsubstitutability(associativerelations--Saussure;paradigmaticrelations--Hjemslev;verticalrelations;choicerelations--Halliday)13Syntagmaticrelation组合关系arelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence(thesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.)paradigmaticrelation聚合关系(SaussureoriginallycalledASSOCIATIVErelation)arelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure.14childgirlTheboyissmiling.farmeroldmanSyntagmatic:horizontal,chain(structure)Paradigmatic:associative,vertical,choice(system)组合就是各语言要素之间的排列聚合就是各语言要素之间的选择15Thesetworelationstogether,likethetwoaxesofacoordinate,determinetheidentityofalinguisticssign.(thevalueofalinguisticsignisdeterminedbythesignswithwhichitcancombinetoformasequence,andthesignswithwhichitcontrastsandcanreplaceinthissequence.)InSaussure’soriginaltheory,thosetworelationsareapplicableineveryleveloflinguisticanalysis./p/isinasyntagmaticrelationwith/i/and/t/inthewordpit;anditisinaparadigmaticrelationwith/b/,/s/and/h/.(bit,sit,hit)16Therearesyntacticandsemanticconditionsthewordsinasyntagmaticrelationmustmeet;theconstraintsonwordsinaparadigmaticrelationaresyntacticonly.Semanticfactorsarenottakeintoconsideration.Theboykickedtheball.*Theballkickedtheboy.你怎么打了他？你怎么打他了？他怎么打了你？他怎么打你了？他打你怎么了？17IIIIIITheboysawthedog.Thegirlchasedthecat.Theyranafterthegirl.Johnkickedtheball.Maryreadthebook.Wecansaythatthephrasesineachcolumnareinparadigmaticrelation.184.SyntacticFunction4.1Subject&Objecttraditionally,subjectcanbedefinedasthedoeroftheaction,objectmayrefertothe“receiver”or“goal”ofanaction,anditisfurtherclassifiedintoDIRECTOBJECTandINDIRECTOBJECT.Motherboughtadoll.Mothergavemysisteradoll.Ind.Obj.Dir.Obj.194.2PredicatePREDICATEreferstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether.Itusuallyexpressesactions,processes,andstatesthatrefertothesubject.Theboyisrunning.Peterbroketheglass.Janemustbemad!204.3CategoryThedefiningpropertiesofaclassorgroupofitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguage.(特定语言中执行相同或相似功能的一类或一组项目的语法特征)范畴是一个意义广泛的句法学概念，指的是在语言结构某一层面上、能够区分开的语法单位或词汇单位的任何类和任何系统。范畴有时候指词类，有时候指和具体词类有关的语法特征。21从词的变化、组合中变现出来的各种关系意义就是语法意义，而同类语法意义的进一步概括就是语法范畴。Number,gender,case,countabilityfornounsorpronounsTense,aspect,voice,mood:forverbs224.3.1NUMBERagrammaticalcategoryu