外文文献及翻译doc

CriminalLaw1.GeneralIntroductionCriminallawisthebodyofthelawthatdefinescriminaloffenses,regulatestheapprehension,charging,andtrialofsuspectedoffenders,andfixespunishmentforconvictedpersons.Substantivecriminallawdefinesparticularcrimes,andprocedurallawestablishesrulesfortheprosecutionofcrime.Inademocraticsociety,itisthefunctionofthelegislativebodiestodecidewhatbehaviorwillbemadecriminalandwhatpenaltieswillbeattachedtoviolationsofthelaw.Capitalpunishmentmaybeimposedinsomejurisdictionsforthemostseriouscrimes.Andphysicalorcorporalpunishmentmaystillbeimposedsuchaswhippingorcaning,althoughthesepunishmentsareprohibitedinmuchoftheworld.Aconvictmaybeincarceratedinprisonorjailandthelengthofincarcerationmayvaryfromadaytolife.Criminallawisareflectionofthesocietythatproduceit.InanIslamictheocracy,suchasIran,criminallawwillreflectthereligiousteachingsoftheKoran;inanCatholiccountry,itwillreflectthetenetsofCatholicism.Inaddition,criminallawwillchangetoreflectchangesinsociety,especiallyattitudechanges.Forinstance,useofmarijuanawasonceconsideredaseriouscrimewithharshpenalties,whereastodaythepenaltiesinmoststatesarerelativelylight.Asseverityofthepenaltieswasreduced.Asasocietyadvances,itsjudgmentsaboutcrimeandpunishmentchange.2.ElementsofaCrimeObviously,differentcrimesrequiredifferentbehaviors,buttherearecommonelementsnecessaryforprovingallcrimes.First,theprohibitedbehaviordesignatedasacrimemustbeclearlydefinedsothatareasonablepersoncanbeforewarnedthatengaginginthatbehaviorisillegal.Second,theaccusedmustbeshowntohavepossessedtherequisiteintenttocommitthecrime.Third,thestatemustprovecausation.Finally,thestatemustprovebeyondareasonabledoubtthatthedefendantcommittedthecrime.(1)actusreusThefirstelementofcrimeistheactusreus.Actusisanactoractionandreusisapersonjudiciallyaccusedofacrime.Therefore,actusreusisliterallytheactionofapersonaccusedofacrime.Acriminalstatutemustclearlydefineexactlywhatactisdeemed“guilty”---thatis,theexactbehaviorthatisbeingprohibited.Thatisdonesothatallpersonsareputonnoticethatiftheyperformtheguiltyact,theywillbeliableforcriminalpunishment.Unlesstheactusreusisclearlydefined,onemightnotknowwhetherornotone’sbehaviorisillegal.Actusreusmaybeaccomplishedbyanaction,bythreatofaction,orexceptionally,byanomissiontoact,whichisalegaldutytoact.Forexample,theactofCainstrikingAbelmightsuffice,oraparent’sfailuretogivetoayoungchildalsomayprovidetheactusreusforacrime.Wheretheactusreusisafailuretoact,theremustbeadutyofcare.Adutycanarisethroughcontract,avoluntaryundertaking,abloodrelation,andoccasionallythroughone’sofficialposition.Dutyalsocanarisefromone’sowncreationofadangeroussituation.(2)mensreaAsecondelementofacrimeismensrea.Mensreareferstoanindividual’sstateofmindwhenacrimeiscommitted.Whileactusreusisprovenbyphysicaloreyewitnessevidence,mensreaismoredifficulttoascertain.Thejurymustdetermineforitselfwhethertheaccusedhadthenecessaryintenttocommittheact.Alowerthresholdofmensreaissatisfiedwhenadefendantrecognizesanactisdangerousbutdecidestocommititanyway.Thisisrecklessness.Forinstance,ifCaintearsagasmeterfromawall,andknowsthiswillletflammablegasescapeintoaneighbor’shouse,hecouldbeliableforpoisoning.Courtsoftenconsiderwhethertheactordidrecognisethedanger,oralternativelyoughttohaverecognizedadanger(thoughhedidnot)istantamounttoerasingintentasarequirement.Inthisway,theimportanceofmensreahasbeenreducedinsomeareasofthecriminallaw.Wrongfulnessofintentalsomayvarytheseriousnessofanoffense.Akillingcommittedwithspecificintenttokillorwithconsciousrecognitionthatdeathorseriousbodilyharmwillresult,wouldbemurder,whereasakillingaffectedbyrecklessactslackingsuchaconsciousnesscouldbemanslaughter.(3)CausationThenextelementiscausation.Oftenthephrase“butfor”isusedtodeterminewhethercausationhasoccurred.Forexample,wemightsay“CaincausedAbel”,bywhichwereallymean“CaincausedAbel’sdeath.”Inotherwords,‘butforCain’sact,Abelwouldstillbealive.”Causation,then,means“butfor”theactionsofA,Bwouldnothavebeenharmed.Incriminallaw,causationisanelementthatmustbeprovenbeyondareasonabledoubt.(4)ProofbeyondaReasonableDoubtInviewofthefactthatincriminalcaseswearedealingwiththelifeandlibertyoftheaccusedperson,aswellasthestigmaaccompanyingconviction,thelegalsystemplacesstronglimitsonthepowerofthestatetoconvictapersonofacrime.Criminaldefendantsarepresumedinnocent.Thestatemustovercomethispresumptionofinnocencebyprovingeveryelementoftheoffensechargedagainstthedefendantbeyondareasonabledoubttothesatisfactionofallthejurors.Thisrequirementistheprimarywayoursystemminimizestheriskofconvictinganinnocentperson.Thestatemustproveitscasewithinaframeworkofproceduralsafeguardsthataredesignedtoprotecttheaccused.Thestate’sfailuretoproveanymaterialelementofitscaseresultsintheaccusedbeingacquittedorfoundnotguilty,eventhoughheorshemayactuallyhavecommittedthecrimecharged.3.StrictLiabilityInmodernsociety,somecrimesrequirenomoremensrea,andtheyareknownasstrictliabilityoffenses.Forinstance,undertheRoadTrafficAct1988itisastrictliabilityoffencetodriveavehiclewithanalcoholconcentrationabovetheprescri