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Metonymy（转喻）Inmetonymy,anideaisevokedornamedbymeansoftermdesignatingsomeassociatednotion.“It”standsfor“thought”ingrammar,butactuallyreferstoMr.Houghton,anditisvulgartorefertoagirlasaskirt.Itwilllectureondisinterestedpuritywhileitsneckisbeingremorselesslytwistedtowardaskirt.(Para.23)Mr.HoughtonMoreexamplesgirlsTheburglarwasinSally’smindalldaylong.(burglar=someideaoftheburglar)•Democracyfavorsthevoteratherthanthebullet.(Vote=election,bullet=militarysolutions)•“Politicalpowergrowsoutofthebarrelofagun.”(MaoZedongrefersittothemilitaryrevolution)•BillGatesisthekingofoperatingsystemsworldwide.(BillGates=Microsoft)•Thepenismightierthanthesword.(pen=writer;sword=fighter)ComparisonsynecdocheSynecdoche（提喻）Synecdochecanbeincludedinmetonymy,anditreferstothesubstitutionofthepartforthewholeorofthewholeforthepart.Ifwewerecountingheads,theBuddhistsweretheboysformymoney.(Para.27)(head=person)Therearetwomouthstofeedinmyfamily.(mouth=person)Godblessthehandsthatpreparedthisfood.(hand=person)Irony（反语）Ironyistheexpressionofone’smeaningbyusinglanguagethatnormallysignifiestheopposite,typicallyforhumorousoremphaticeffect.Technically,itisaboutasproficientasmostbusinessmen’sgolf,ashonestasmostpoliticians’intentions,orascoherentasmostbooksthatgetwritten.(Para.23)Itmustbedelightfultofindoneselfinaforeigncountrywithoutapennyinone’spocket.Itisthedeliberateuseofoverstatementorexaggerationtoachieveemphasis.Forinstance.Youcouldhearthewind,trappedinhischestandstrugglingwithalltheunnaturalimpediments.Hisbodywouldreelwithshockandhisfacegowhiteattheunaccustomedvisitation.Hewouldstaggerbacktohisdeskandcollapsethere,uselessfortherestofthemorning.Shehadbeenknittingforseventyyears,andlookedgoodforanotherseventy.Hyperbole（夸张）Simile（明喻）Itmakesacomparisonbetweentwounlikeelementshavingatleastonequalityorcharacteristicincommon.Tomakethecomparison,wordslike“as”,“as...as”,“asif”and“like”areusedtotransferthequalityweassociatewithonetotheother.Theyallcametumblingdownlikesomanyrottenapplesoffatree.Manenjoysagreementascowswillgrazeallthesamewayonthesideofahill.Metaphor（暗喻）Itislikeasimile,alsomakesacomparisonbetweentwounlikeelements,butunlikeasimile,thiscomparisonisimpliedratherthanstated.Heseemstomerulednotbythoughtbutbyaninvisibleandirresistiblespringinhisneck.Ittooktheswimmersomedistancefromtheshoreandlefthimthere,outofhisdepth.Inspring,whitecloudsofbloomdriftedabovethegreenfields.EllipsisMoreexamplesEllipsis:afigureofspeechcharacterizedbytheomissionofoneormorewordsthat,whileessentialtothegrammaticstructureofthesentence,areeasilysuppliedbythereader.Theeffectofellipsisisrhetorical;itmakesforEMPHASISofstatement.Thedeviceoftentrapstheunwaryuserintodifficulties,sincecarelessnesswillresultinimpossibleconstructions.Thesaferuleistobesurethatthewordstobesuppliedoccurinthepropergrammaticformnottoremotefromtheplacetheellipsisoccurs.EffectButifthestaunchestRomanCatholicandthestaunchestPresbyterianhadbeenexchangedwhen(theywere)infants,andiftheyhadbeenbroughtupwithhomeandallotherinfluencesreserved,wecanhavelittledoubtwhattheresultwouldhavebeen.(Para.3)Sometimesitdoesrain—and(itdoesrain)hard.WhatdoIhearduringtheintervalswhenIdoattend?(Ihear)Twosortsofmusic.Theymeltintoeachotherallthetime,and(they)arenoteasytochristen,butIwillcalloneofthem“musicthatremindsmeofsomething”and(Iwillcall)theother“musicitself”.Iusedtobeveryfondofmusicthatremindedmeofsomething,and(Iwas)especiallyfondofWagner.(E.M.Forster,“NotListeningtoMusic”)Onomatopoeia（拟声法）Theuseofwordsthatbytheirsoundsuggesttheirmeaning.Someonomatopoeticwordsare“hiss”,“buzz”,“whirr”,“sizzle”,“crack”.However,onomatopoeiainthehandsofapoetorawriterbecomesamuchmoresubtledevicethansimplytheuseofsuchwords.Iwouldleavethebrightsunandthetwitterandrustleofinsectsandanimalsoutside.MoreexamplesOutside,cockswerecrowingandawhitestreakwasrisingfromtheground.(Para.1)…heturnedupthefirstsodwithacrunchingsoundasthegrassrootsweredraggedoutoftheearth.(Para.13)Shewasjustmunchingherbreadandbutter.(Para.17)Theraspingnoisecarriedalongwayinthesilence.(Para.19)Cowswerelowingatadistance.(Para.26)Parallelism平行Attheedgeofanewcentury,globalizationisadouble-edgedsword:apowerfulvehiclethatraiseseconomicgrowth,spreadsnewtechnologyandraiseslivingstandardsinrichandpoorcountriesalike,…(Para.1)similarityofstructureinapairorseriesofrelatedwords,phrases,orclausesThreeverbphrasesarecoordinatedlyusedaspredicateoftheattributiveclause.ParallelismWhatwecallthemarketissimplythejoiningofbuyersandsellers,producersandconsumersandsaversandinvestors.(Para.3)Threenounphrasesarecoordinatedlyusedastheobjectofpreposition“of”.ParallelismEconomichistoryconsistslargelyofthestoryofthemarket’sexpansion:fromfarmtotown,fromregiontonationandfromnationtonation.(Para.3)Inthissentence,threeprepositionalphrasesareusedtogethertodescribethemarket’sexpansion.ParallelismGlobalization’sotherproblemispolitical,culturalandsocial.(Para.29)Threeadjectivesarecoordinatedtoshowtheotherproblemsofglobalization.Parallelismparallelismofwords:Shetriedtomakeherpastryfluffy,sweet,anddelicate.parallelismofphras