educational-psychology-教育心理学

Chapter1Anintroductiontoeducationalpsychology:Behaviorismandcognitivepsychology(andconstructivism)--Williams&Burden1EducationalpsychologyWhatiseducationalpsychology?Theapplicationofpsychologytoeducationbyfocusingonthedevelopment,evaluationandapplicationoftheoriesandprinciplesoflearningandinstructionthatcanenhancelifelonglearning.(Kaplan1990)Educationalpsychologyfocusesonlearning—whatislearningandhowlearningtakesplace.W&Bpointout,however,thatthisdefinitionfailstorecognizethatthereisafundamentaldifferencebetweenlearningandeducation.Whatisthedifferencebetweenthetwo?Learningispartoftheprocessofeducation,buttobetrulyeducativeitmustgiveabroadervalueandmeaningtothelearner’slife.Itmustbeconcernedwitheducatingthewholeperson.Theword‘education’derivesfromoneorbothofthefollowingconcepts:‘Educare’–todrawoutandrealizepotential;‘Educere’–tobringupandnurture.BothoftheseconceptsmergeinKant’sfamousclaimthatthepurposeofeducationistoenablehumanitytodevelopandtoimprove:‘Mancanonlybecomemanbyeducation’(Kant1803/1960:6).（Jordan,CarlileandStack,2008:6）2Twomajorschoolsofthought—positivistschoolandcognitiveschool2.1PositivistschoolViewofthenatureofknowledge:knowledgeandfactsexistintherealworldandmustbediscoveredAcceptingonlyempiricaldataasevidenceandrejectanythingthatcannotbeseenormeasuredasunscientific.InfluenceofbehaviorismoneducationingeneralandLanguageteachingmethodologyinparticular(structuralandaudio-lingualapproaches).BehaviorismClassicalconditioning（Pavlov）Operantconditioning(Skinner)StimulusresponseReinforcementBehaviorismfocusesonobservablelearningeventsasdemonstratedbystimulusandresponserelationships.Learningalwaysinvolvesachangeinbehavior.Mentalprocessesshouldbeexcludedfromthescientificstudyoflearning.Thelawsgoverninglearningapplyequallytoallorganisms,includinghumanorganisms.Organismsbeginlifeasblankslates:therearenoinnatelawsofbehavior.Learningresultsfromexternaleventsintheenvironment.Behaviorismisadeterministictheory:thesubjecthasnochoicebuttorespondtoappropriatestimuli.（Jordan,CarlileandStack,2008:33）Teachersshouldmakeexplicitlyclearwhatistobetaught.Tasksshouldbebrokendownintosmall,sequentialsteps.Studentsshouldbeencouragedtoworkattheirownpacebymeansofindividualizedlearningprograms.Learningshouldbeprogrammedbyincorporatingtheaboveproceduresandprovidingimmediatepositivereinforcementbasedasnearlyaspossibleon100percentsuccess.Evaluation：Anti-humanisticinitsfailuretoaccountforhumanabilitytotakeactionsforthemselvesanditsrefusaltoacknowledgehumanfreedomandchoice.Behaviorismgivesinsufficientweighttocontextualfactorssuchasthesocial,economicandpoliticalconditionsandforcesthatpromoteorconstrainaction.Italsofailstoconsiderotherdeterminantsinlearning,suchasinheritedintelligenceandpersonality.Anti-intellectual.Inhigherlearning,behavioristtechniquesmaynotbeeffectiveinpromotingdeeplearning,whichisrelatedtopersonalunderstandingandmeaning-making.Inadult,further,andhighereducation,itisalsodifficulttoapplybehavioristprinciples,becausetheyoftenfailtotakeaccountofcreativeprocessesandofincidental,unexpectedandself-initiatedlearning.Ontheotherhand,behaviorismisefficientinpromotingrapidlearning,becauseofitsprecisespecificationofactionsandlearningoutcomes.Behavioristprinciplesarealsouseful–theyofferpracticalandspecificadvicetotheteacherorcurriculumplanneraboutwhattodo.Behaviorismcanco-existwithlaterlearningtheoriesthatfocusoncognitionorthesocialacquisitionofmeaning.Itmayserveasafoundationalelementonthebasisofwhichmorecomplexcognitiveprocessesaredeveloped.Forexample,someAsianculturesseerepetitiveskillacquisitionasanecessaryprerequisitetothedevelopmentofcreativity.Behaviorismisstillofinteresttostudentsandeducatorsbecausemanyhumanbehaviorscanberelatedtoorexplainedbythetheory.Manybehavioristpracticeshaverecentlybeenincorporatedintotheeducationalworld–theseincludetheuseoflearningoutcomesinstandardizedsystemsthatpromotelifelonglearningandprogression.Itispossibletotakeamoresophisticatedviewofwhatbehavioristtheorycanoffer,particularlywhenitisconsideredasacomplementtocognitivistandconstructivisttheoriesoflearning.2.2CognitivepsychologyHumanlearnersthinkwhenlearning.Theyareactiveparticipantsinthelearningprocess,usingvariousmentalstrategies,hencethefocusonthementalprocesses.2.2.1Informationprocessing(mechanistic)70sand80sThewaylearnerstakeininformation,processitandactuponit,sothefocusisonattention,perception,encodingandmemory.2.2.2AttentionLearnersdifferintermsofpayingattentiontolearning.Why?Twointerpretations:Therangeofincominginformationisoverwhelming,soselectionbecomesdifficult(Klatzky1980)Thelearningtaskisnewandthereforedemandsattentionresources(Best1986)Implication:attentionisactive2.2.3MemoryShort-term(working)memory:(thecapacityis7digits,plusorminus2,withashortdurationof30seconds.Soitmaygetoverloaded.Solution:mnemonics(chunking)ForL2learning,2methods:Linkwordmethod(Gruneberg1987)Advanceorganizers(Ausubel1968)Long-termmemory:thestoreroom2.2.4Intelligence3questions:Isintelligenceinbornandfixed?Isitimprovable?Is