58亚里士多德

AristotlePlatoandAristotleAristotleandAlexanderBiographicalInformation•384BC—322BC(62years)•BorninStagira,Chalcidice.•Hisfather:Nicomachus,personalphysiciantoKingAmyntasofMacedon.•367BC(17yearsold):wenttoAthens,studentofPlatountilPlatodiedin348BC•348BC:TraveledwithhisfriendinAsiaMinor（小亚细亚）,researchedthebotany（植物学）andzoology，gotmarriedwithPythias•343BC:wentbacktoMacedonia,tutoredAlexander•335BC:returnedtoAthens,establishedschoolnamedLyceum•323BC:Alexanderdied,hefledAthensanddiedinthenextyearResearchFields•Hismostimportanttreatises（论文）includePhysics,Metaphysics,NicomacheanEthics,Politics,DeAnima(OntheSoul)andPoetics.•physicalscience:anatomy（解剖学）,astronomy,embryology（胚胎学）,geography,geology,meteorology（气象学）,physicsandzoology.•Philosophy：hewroteonaesthetics,ethics,government,metaphysics,politics,economics,psychology,rhetoricandtheology.•Healsostudiededucation,foreigncustoms,literatureandpoetry.•HiscombinedworksconstituteavirtualencyclopediaofGreekknowledge.IthasbeensuggestedthatAristotlewasprobablythelastpersontoknoweverythingtherewastobeknowninhisowntime.Logic•WiththePriorAnalytics,Aristotleiscreditedwiththeearlieststudyofformallogic,andhisconceptionofitwasthedominantformofWesternlogicuntil19thcenturyadvancesinmathematicallogic.KantstatedintheCritiqueofPureReasonthatAristotle'stheoryoflogiccompletelyaccountedforthecoreofdeductiveinference.Plato(left)andAristotle(right),adetailofTheSchoolofAthens,afresco(壁画)byRaphael.Aristotlegesturestotheearth,representinghisbeliefinknowledgethroughempiricalobservationandexperience,whileholdingacopyofhisNicomacheanEthicsinhishand,whilstPlatogesturestotheheaven,representinghisbeliefinTheForms.Whatisthedifferenceoftheirgestures?DivisionofScience•allscienceiseitherpractical,poeticalortheoretical.•Bypracticalscience,hemeansethicsandpolitics;•Bypoeticalscience,hemeansthestudyofpoetryandtheotherfinearts;•Bytheoreticalscience,hemeansphysics,mathematicsandmetaphysics.•亚里士多德把科学分为：（1）实践的科学(伦理学、政治学、经济学、战略学和修饰学);（2）创造的科学，即诗学;（3）理论的科学(物理学、数学、自然科学和后来被称为形而上学的第一哲学)Physics•Thefiveelements•Aristotleproposedafifthelement,aether（以太）,inadditiontothefourproposedearlierbyEmpedocles.•Earth,whichiscoldanddry;thiscorrespondstothemodernideaofasolid.•Water,whichiscoldandwet;thiscorrespondstothemodernideaofaliquid.•Air,whichishotandwet;thiscorrespondstothemodernideaofagas.•Fire,whichishotanddry;thiscorrespondstothemodernideaofheat.•Aether,whichisthedivinesubstancethatmakesuptheheavenlyspheresandheavenlybodies(starsandplanets).•Geocentric:•Existofaether:•Eternityofcosmos:•Threekindsofmotions:TheFourCauses•Aristotlesuggestedthatthereasonforanythingcomingaboutcanbeattributedtofourdifferenttypesofsimultaneouslyactivecausalfactors:•MaterialCause:质料因natureofrawmaterial•FormalCause:形式因arrangementofthatmatter•EfficientCause:动力因Whatcauseschangeormotion•FinalCause:目的因purpose,aimCauseandEffect•thingscanbecausesofoneanother（互为因果，努力工作和幸福感）•thesamethingcanbethecauseofcontraryeffects（同一件事情造成相反的影响，贫穷使人发奋亦或使人堕落）•Twomodesofcausation:proper(prior)causationAccidental(chance)causatione.g.skill;nervous,ill•Chanceandspontaneity（机会和自发性）•spontaneityandchancearecausesofsomethings•Chanceasanincidentalcauseliesintherealmofaccidentalthings.Itisfromwhatisspontaneous(butnotethatwhatisspontaneousdoesnotcomefromchance).•luck,thatcanonlyapplytohumanbeings,sinceitisinthesphereofmoralactions.AccordingtoAristotle,luckmustinvolvechoice(andthusdeliberation),andonlyhumansarecapableofdeliberationandchoice.”Whatisnotcapableofactioncannotdoanythingbychance“（必然和偶然，守株待兔）Metaphysics•Aristotledefinesmetaphysicsas“theknowledgeofimmaterialbeing,”（非物质存在）orof“beinginthehighestdegreeofabstraction.”（最高程度的抽象存在）Hereferstometaphysicsas“firstphilosophy”,aswellas“thetheologicscience.”（他把形而上学和神学一起称为第一哲学）•Substance,potentialityandactuality•Substance（实体）:acombinationofbothmatterandform(e.g.house)•Sortsofchange(regardtoitschangeandcourses)1.growthanddiminution（成长或缩小）,whichischangeinquantity;量变2.locomotion（运动）,whichischangeinspace;位移3.alteration（改变）,whichischangeinquality.质变•Heintroducestheconceptofpotentiality(dynamis)andactuality(entelecheia)inassociationwiththematterandtheform.•Potentiality（潜在性）:thisiswhatathingiscapableofdoing,orbeingactedupon(e.g.seedtogrow).Potentiallybeingscaneither'act'or'beactedupon',whichcanbeeitherinnateorlearned.(e.g.eye;playingflute)•Actuality（现实性）:thefulfillmentoftheendofthepotentiality.•Insummary,thematterusedtomakeahousehaspotentialitytobeahouseandboththeactivityofbuildingandtheformofthefinalhouseareactualities,whichisalsoafinalcauseorend.ThenAristotleproceedsandconcludesthattheactualityispriortopotentialityinformula,intimeandinsubstantiality.•UniversalsandParticulars（普遍性和特殊性）•Plato:Allthingshaveauniversalform,whichcouldbeeitheraproperty,orarelationtootherthings.(e.g.apple).hearguedthattherearesomeuniversalformsthatarenotapartofparticularthings.•Aristotle:Alluniversalsareinstantiated（具体化）.•Locationofuniverse:•Plato:spokeoftheworldoftheforms（形式的世界）,alocationwherealluniversalformssubsist（存在）•Aristotle:Aristotlemaintainedthatuniver