词汇学- 词的意义

第四单元词的意义PartII.Motivation•任意说（唯名论、约定论、习惯派）•名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约则谓之不宜。名无固实，约之以命实，约定俗成谓之实名。《荀子集解·正名》What’sinaname?ThatwhichwecallaroseByanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.Romeo,doffthynameAndforthatname,whichisnopartoftheeTakeallmyself.(RomeoandJuliet,ActII,scene2)象似说（唯实论、本质论、自然派）’Tisnotenoughnoharshnessgivesoffence,Thesoundmustbeanechotothesense.(Pope,EssayonCriticism)语言结构的规律与自然界的规律相似，……从而帮助人深入认识自然界的形态特征。（洪堡特，《论人类语言结构的差异及其对人类精神发展的影响》）仰则观象于天，俯则观法于地。视鸟兽之文与地之宜，近取诸身，远取诸物。（董仲舒，《易经》）（注：人的认知、分类、造字是依靠自然的。）1.Phoneticmotivation•Wordsmotivatedphoneticallyarecalledonomatopoeicwordsorechoicwords,whicharecoinedinimitationofthesoundsassociatedwiththethingsnamed.Onomatopoeicwordsshowacloserelationofsoundtosense:thebaa-baaofasheep,thecooofapigeon,themiaowofacatandthewoof-wooforbow-wowofadog.•R.Quirkalsopointsout:Andeventhese(echoicwords)areconventionaltoquitealargeextent'.Ifyouthrowastoneintowater,thesoundyouhearisbynomeansthesameaswhenyousay'splash'(RandolphQuirk1962:9.43).•Thesymbolicnatureofonomatopoeicwordsmaybepartlyduetothephoneticormorphologicalrestraints.•Wehaveobservedthefactthatdifferentlanguagesmayemploydifferentphoneticstructuresinimitationofthecriesofthesameanimals.Forexample,thecryofadogiswang-wanginChinese,butwoof-woofinEnglish,gnaf-gnafinFrench,guauinSpanish,amh-amhinIrishandwung-wunginJapanese.Wesay“狗吠”、“鸡啼”、“鹤唳”，“猿啼”、“马嘶”、“狼嗥”、“虎啸”、“狮吼”inChinese,butdogsbark,cockscrow,craneswhoop,apesgibber,horsesneighorsnort,wolveshowl,tigerssnarlorgrowlandlionsroarinEnglish.2.Morphologicalmotivation•Forexample,ifoneknowsthemeaningoftheagentivesuffix-erandtherootwork,thenonecanimmediatelytellthatthemeaningofthewordworkerisapersonwhoworks;ifonehaslearnedthewordsnotesandbook,thenhecancertainlyinferfromthecompoundnotebookthemeaningabookinwhichnotesarewritten.3.Semanticmotivation•Semanticmotivationisbasedonsemanticfactors.Itisakindofmentalassociation.Whenwespeakofthefootofahillwearecomparingthebaseofahilltothelowerpartofalegbelowtheankle;whenwesaytheeyeofaneedlewearecomparingtheholeinaneedletoman'sorganofsight.•Interestingly,WefindtheChineseequivalents山脚and针眼.Thisisnodoubtduetotheuniversalityofmodesofhumanthought.Butitisalsonaturalthatdifferentnationsmaynameobjectsfromdifferentangles.•TheChineseword蚯蚓,forexample,issonamedaccordingtothewrigglingmovementoftheworm;theEnglishearthworm(土虫)isnamedaccordingtothewormslivingenvironment;theGermanRegenwurm(雨虫)isnamedaccordingtotheweatherunderwhichthewormcomesouttowork.Althoughthesamekindof.wormiscalleddifferentnamesinthethreedifferentlanguages,thesenamesareallbasedonthetypicalfeaturesofthereferent.PartIIII.MainTypesofWordMeaning•A.Grammaticalmeaning•Wordscanbedividedintotwoclasses:functionwordsandcontentwords.•Functionwordsaredeterminers,conjunctions,prepositions,andauxiliaries.Theydonothavemuchlexicalmeaningandsomeofthemhaveno.lexicalmeaningoftheirown.Theirmainfunctionistoexpressvariousgrammaticalrelationshipsinandbetweensentences•B.Lexicalmeaning•Lexicalmeaningmaybesubdividedintodenotativemeaning,connotativemeaning,socialorstylisticmeaning,affectivemeaningreflectedmeaning,collocativemeaningandcontextualmeaning.•1.Denotativemeaning•man(+male,+adult,+human)woman(-male,+adult,+human)•boy(+male,-adult,+human)girl(-male,-adult,+human)•2.ConnotativeMeaning•Thefabulousanimaldragon,forinstance,connotessovereigntyandsupremacytotheOrientalnationsbutfierceness,ferocityandviolencetomostOccidentalraces.Roadisanotherwordwithdifferentconnotationsforpeoplesofdifferentcultures.TotheEskimoslivinginthefarnorthofNorthAmericaandeasternSiberia,roadoftenconnotessnow-coveredgroundwhereastouslivingincities,roadconnotessmoothandtree–linedavenuescrowdedwithpeopleandheavytraffic.•3.SocialorStylisticMeaning•Thewordmother,for-example;hasvariedformsusedindifferentdialectsorsocialclasses:mom(AmE,informal),mum(BrE,informal),mama(olduse.esp.upperclass)andma(informal,esp.workingclass).Asasocialindicator,languagereflectsaspeaker’slivingplace,educationalbackgroundandsocialstatus,Inotherwords,one'swayofspeakingcanmoreorlessclassifyhim.•4.Affectivemeaning•apprec.neutralderog.•slimthinskinny•loyaltyadherencepartisanship•intercedeinterveneinterferebachelorgirlsinglewomanoldmaid;spinster•innovativenewnewfangled•Besides,afewEnglishsuffixesalsocarryaffectivemeanings.Forexample,-yand-ie(daddy,auntie,girlieanddearie)expressanintimatefeeling;-ard,-art,-eer,-lingand-ster(drunkarddullard,braggart,profiteer,routineer,hireling,underling,weakling,gamester,gangster)aregenerallychargedwithapejorativemeaning,expressingdisapprovalorcontemptonthepartofthespeaker.•YearsagoChinaexportedakindofcellwiththetradesmarkWhiteElephantandwassurprisedtofindthattheproductdidn’tsellinthemarket.Thereasonwassimple:thephrasewhiteelephantmeansausuallybigobjectnotusefultoitsowner,thoughperhapshavingcostmoney,orbeinggivenasapresent,whichtheownerwantstogetridof(LongmanDictionaryOfContemporaryEnglish,1978).Noonewouldbuyacostlyandtroublesomethingwithoutanyvalue.•6.Collocationalmeaning•Collocationalmeaningreferstothesemanticrestrictionthatdeterminesthecollocatinoalrelat