Semantics and Pragmatics 语言学

TheStudyofMeaningLexicalsemantics:themeaningsofwords,andthemeaningrelationshipsamongwords.Sententialsemantics:themeaningofsyntacticunitslargerthantheword.Pragmatics:thestudyofhowcontextaffectsmeaningConceptualMeaningandContextualMeaningConceptualMeaning:basic,essentialcomponentsofmeaningwhichareconveyedbytheliteraluseofaword.ContextualMeaning:alsocalledassociativemeaningorconnotativemeaning.Meaningconveyedinaspecificcontext.SemanticsThestudyofthelinguisticmeaningofmorphemes,words,phrases,andsentences.Semanticsfocusesitsattentiononconceptualmeaningwithoutconsideringthespecificsituationinwhichthewordisusedorthesentenceisspoken.PragmaticsThestudyofhowcontextaffectsmeaningIt’scoldinhere.Closethewindow.LexicalSemanticsWordMeaningsSymbolSomethingwhichweusetorepresentanotherthing.E.g.apicture,aletter,aspokenorwrittenwordAnythingweuseconventionallyforthepurpose.SenseSensereferstothemeaningofthelinguisticformindependentofsituationalcontext.Dog:adomesticatedcaninemammal,occurringinmanybreedsthatshowagreatvarietyinsizeandform(CollinsDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,1979)ReferenceReferent:thethingthatthesymbolidentifies.Reference:therelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.E.g.Thedogisbarking.TheSemanticTriangleconceptsymbolizesreferstosymbolreferent(word)standsfor(object)airplaneExplanationoftheTriangleTherelationshipbetweenwordsandthingscanbeseenasatriangle.Thereisnotadirectlinkbetweenthesoundofthewordplane(symbol)andtheobjectitrefersto(referent).Whatissignifiedisnotactuallywhatwehavebeenshownbutanabstractconceptformedinourmind.AnExampleThedogovertherelooksfriendly.Theword“dog”isdirectlyassociatedwithacertainconceptinourmind,i.e.whata“dog”islike,butitisnotdirectlylinkedtothereferent(theparticulardog)inthisparticularcase.ShortagesoftheSemanticTriangleThesamereferentisexpressedbydifferentconceptsindifferentlanguages.Blackcoffee:清咖啡、不加奶的咖啡红糖：brownsugar黄皮鞋：brownshoes黄色电影：bluefilmOneMoreExampleColor:InChinese,赤橙黄绿青蓝紫.InEnglish,red,orange,yellow,green,blue,purple.InShonaspokeninRomania,fourcolors.InBassaspokeninLiberia,onlytwocolors:coldandwarm.Blue:coldcolorliketheskyRed:warmcolorlikethebloodSenseRelationsSynonymyAntonymyHyponymyGradableComplementaryRelationalSynonymybuy/purchasethrifty/economical/stingyautumn/fallflat/apartmenttube/undergroundGradableAntonymygood-----------------------badlong-----------------------shortbig-----------------------smallCanbemodifiedbyadverbsofdegreelikevery.Canhavecomparativeforms.Canbeaskedwithhow.ComplementaryAntonymyalive:deadmale:femalepresent:absentinnocent:guiltyodd:evenpass:failboy:girlhit:missRelationalAntonymybuy:selllend:borrowgive:receiveparent:childhusband:wifeteacher:studentabove:belowbefore:afterhost:guestemployer:employeeHyponymyInclusivenessAisincludedin/akindofB.Cf.:chairandfurniture,roseandflowerSuperordinate:themoregeneraltermHyponym:themorespecifictermCo-hyponyms:membersofthesameclassAnimalbirdfishinsectmammalhumananimaltigerlionelephant...ComponentialAnalysisHUMANman(ADULT,MALE)woman(ADULT,FEMALE)boy(NON-ADULT,MALE)girl(NON-ADULT,FEMALE)AnimalwordsMALEFEMALENON-ADULTbullcowcalframewelambboarsowpigletSententialSemanticsSentenceMeaningsSenseRelationsofSentencesSynonymyYoucan’timaginehowImissyou.YoucanimaginehowImissyou.Thepolicecaughtthethief.Thethiefwascaughtbythepolice.SenseRelationsofSentencesContradictionMyfatherhasjustcomefromParis.MyfatherhasneverbeentoParis.Tomisabachelor.Tomismarried.SenseRelationsofSentencesEntailment(蕴涵)Theanarchistassassinatedtheemperor.Theemperorisdead.Theshirtisred.Theshirtisnotwhite.Usually,themorespecificsentenceistheentailingsentence;themoregeneraltheentailedone.PragmaticsPragmaticsisconcernedwiththeinterpretationoflinguisticmeaningincontext.Twokindsofcontext:Linguisticcontext:thediscoursethatprecedesthephraseorsentencetobeinterpretedSituationalcontext:virtuallyeverythingnonlinguisticintheenvironmentofthespeaker.Context1.汽车突然停了下来，司机解释说：“没油了。”2.妈妈正要炒菜，一看油瓶说：“哟，没油了。”1.早饭后爸爸拿着教具和讲稿要走，对10岁的儿子小虎说：“我要上课去了，你把家里的卫生搞一搞。”2.小虎撅着嘴说：“来不及了，我也要上课去。”1.请大家耐心一点，今天我要讲很长的话。2.时间很晚了，我要讲很长的话，大家一定不欢迎。TheImportanceofContext有一个傻女婿要到岳父家给岳父拜寿。临行前，其母再三叮嘱他，说话要吉利，多讲带“寿”字的话。到了岳父家，傻女婿果然非常注意，把“蜡烛”、“蜜桃”、“面条”称为“寿烛”、“寿桃”、“寿面”，岳父听了非常高兴。谁知在大家吃“寿面”时，一只苍蝇落在老寿星头上。傻女婿立刻用手去拍，并且安慰岳父道：“不要怕，我不会打痛你的寿头，拍伤你的寿脑的。”岳父想躲开，结果面汤洒在衣服上了，傻女婿说道：“好好的寿衣浇了一片面汤，怪可惜的。”吃完面，傻女婿摆弄起桌子上一个红木匣子说：“这寿木寿材可真漂亮！”气得老岳父当场昏死过去。SentenceMeaningvs.UtteranceMeaningSentence:abstractunitsofthelanguagesystem.Utterance:unitsoflanguageinuse.Sentencemeaning:WhatdoesXmean?Utterancemeaning:WhatdoyoumeanbyX?你有某某某的电话号码吗？有啊！能告诉我吗？好啊！It’scoldinhere.SpeechActTheoryJohnAustin(1911-1960)HowtoDoThingswithWords(1962)speechacts:actionsperformedviautterancesSomeExamplesofSpeechActsGreeting:“Hi,Eric.Howarethingsgoing?”Request:“Couldyoupassmethesalt,please?”Complaint:“Thedognexttomydoorbarkedforthreehourswithoutstopping.”Invitation:“We’rehavingapartySaturdaynight.wouldyouliketojoinus?”Com