明辨性思维完整版课件section 05 Categorical Logic

Section5CategoricalLogicCategoricalClaimsSyllogismEvaluatingCategoricalSyllogisms:TheTestMethodcriticalthinkingchapter8--brookenoelmooreThinkThisisanine-wordsentence,howcanweputonemorewordintoit,andmakeittendifferentsentences?whatisthewordexactly?Ihelpedmydogtakemyhusband'sslippersyesterday.onlypage172What'stheuseoftheword“only”?CategoricalLogicCategoricalLogicisthelogicofrelationshipsWITHINstatements.范畴逻辑是研究直言判断所陈述的类（或范畴）之间的包含及排除关系。suchas：induction（归纳）--deduction（演绎）、analysis（分析）--synthesize（综合）、abstract（抽象）--solidify（具体）等等，thesearethebasicmeasurementsofdialecticalthinking范畴逻辑的基础知识是categoricalarguements（即直言判断，也叫categoricalclaims）CategoricalArgumentsCategoricalargumentsfocusonstatementsaboutcategoriesofthings.Categoricalstatements（直言陈述）saythatthingsofonecategoryeitherareoraren’tinsomeothercategory.CategoricalArgumentsThisbronzewareisasacrificialvessel.theframeworkquantifier量项link联项subject主项predication谓项SPThe4StandardCategoricalStatementFormsFormNameAbbreviationAllSareP全称肯定判断UniversalAffirmativeSAPAllSarenotP全称否定判断UniversalNegativeSEPSomeSareP特称肯定判断ParticularAffirmativeSIPSomeSarenotP特称否定判断ParticularNegativeSOPa、e、i、o来源于拉丁语affirmo和nego，分别指“我肯定”、“我否定”，现在，也可以用英文元音字母的顺序来区分The4StandardCategoricalStatementFormsExampleNameAbbr.Allphilosophersaresmartpeople.UniversalAffirmativeSAPAllphilosophersarenotsmartpeople.UniversalNegativeSEPSomephilosophersaresmartpeople.ParticularAffirmativeSIPSomephilosophersarenotsmartpeople.ParticularNegativeSOPAnatomyofaVennDiagramSP1234Area1representsthosethingsthatareSandarenotP.Area2representsthosethingsthatarebothSandP.Area3representsthosethingsthatarePandarenotS.Area4representsthosethingsthatareneitherSnorP.JohnVenn--Britishlogician,1834-1923韦恩图可用来表示多个集合之间的逻辑关系AnExampleSWANWHITETHINGS1234Area1representsthingsthatareswansbutaren’twhite.suchasblackswansArea2representsthingsthatareswansandarewhite.Area3representswhitethingsthatarenotswans.PolarBears,whiterosesareinArea3.Area4representsthingsthataren’tswansandaren’twhite.Redapples,JaguarsareinArea4.RepresentingCategoricalStatementswithVennDiagramsTorepresentthefourcategoricalstatementsonaVenndiagram,you--Shadeanareawhenitisempty--Putan“X”inanareawhenithassomethinginit.--Leaveanareablankwhenthestatementdoesn’ttellyouwhethertheareaisemptyorhassomethinginit.AnExampleTomatoesFruits1234UA:Alltomatoesarefruits.Area1isshadedbecauseif“Alltomatoesarefruits,”thenthere’snothinginArea1.Area1representsthosethingsthataretomatoesbutarenotfruits.Butifalltomatoesarefruits,thenArea1isempty.4fromsinVenndiagrampage169Distribution周延性--直言判断主项、谓项的周延性是指，一个判断对它的主项或谓项外延的断定情况。Acategoryisdistributedwhenthestatementsayssomethingaboutallmembersofthatcategory.**如果一个判断确定地断定了其主项或谓项的全部外延，那么其主项或谓项就是周延的；如果一个判断没有确定地断定了其主项或谓项的全部外延，那么其主项或谓项就是不周延的。“确定”，即没有例外。Distribution周延性直言判断实际上就是断定了主项S与谓项P的外延关系，若S与P的外延关系与客观情况一致，该判断为真，否则，即为假。PSSPPPSAllSarePAllSarenotPSomeSarePSomeSarenotPSXXDistribution谓项P主项S周延周延周延周延不周延不周延不周延不周延AEIO主谓项AEIO主、谓项的周延情况表Conversion转换Conversionsarecarriedoutbyswitchingthesubjectandpredicateofastatement.OriginalConverseUAAllSareP.AllPareS.UNAllSarenotP.AllParenotS.PASomeSareP.SomePareS.PNSomeSarenotP.SomeParenotS.ProperandImproperConversionsProperConversionFormUN(1)AllG1arenotG2.Therefore,(2)AllG2arenotG1.PA(1)SomeG1areG2.Therefore,(2)SomeG2areG1.ImproperConversionFormUA(1)AllG1areG2.Therefore,(2)AllG2areG1.PN(1)SomeG1arenotG2.Therefore,(2)SomeG2arenotG1.01PutthecategoricalclaimsbellowintoVennDiagramandchecktheirdistributions:1.Allphilosophersaresmartpeople.2.Allphilosophersarenotsmartpeople.3.Somephilosophersaresmartpeople.4.Somephilosophersarenotsmartpeople.philosopherssmartpeopleXX02指出下列判断属何种直言判断，以及判断主项、谓项的周延情况（若直言判断不规范，先规范为典型的直言判断）1.科学理论都是实践的产物。2.事物的发展不是没有曲折的。3.并非所有的劳动产品都是商品。4.这个班有的同学是不喜欢运动的。所有的科学理论都是实践的产物。SAP一些事物的发展是曲折的发展。SIP一些劳动产品不是商品。S0P这班有的同学是（不）喜欢运动的人。SIP03指出下列判断属何种直言判断，以及判断主项、谓项的周延情况（若直言判断不规范，先规范为典型的直言判断）1.各行各业中都有不称职的干部。2.没有金属不导电。3.并非有的水稻是多年生植物。4.占我班五分之一的同学是优秀生。所有的行业都有不称职的干部。SAP所有的金属都是导电体。SAP一些水稻不是多年生植物。S0P我班5分之1的同学是优秀学生。SIP请给出此句的直言判断的规范形式并结合韦恩图说明其主项、谓项的周延情况：各行各业中都有不称职的干部。改写：所有的行业都有不称职的干部。SAP联项否定才能当做否定句，然而，“不称职的”仅作为“干部”的定语，即unfitofficials，跟句式无关；因为“有”字是包含关系，“干部”仅是“行业”里面的一类职务群体，所以应该把“不称职的干部”作为主项比较合适，如下：不称职的干部S项周延，因为不存在P项以外的S。但P项不周延，因为，除“不称职的干部”以外，各行各业还有“称职的干部或员工”、“普通工作人员”、“平庸的干部或员工”，甚至“贪腐人员”等许多其他定义。比较：不能说所有的干部都称职。行业请给出此句的直言判断的规范形式并结合韦恩图说明其主项、谓项的周延情况：占我班五分之一的同学是优秀生。改写：我班5分之1的同学是优秀学生。SIP“有”字是包含关系，且“干部”仅是“行业”里面的一类职务群体，所以应该把“不称职的干部”作为韦恩图的主项，如下：我班同学S项不周延，因为我班除了优秀生，还有非优秀生（比如普通生）P项不周延，因为优秀生的评选肯定不限于本班，还有其他班级。X=1/5的本班同学优秀生Xequivalentclaimstraining:convertallofthestatementsintostandardequivalentclaims;page170--171,examalloftheexamplescarefully,andtrytotranslatetheseclaimsintoVenndiagrams.criticalthinkingchapter8--brookenoelmooreContradictionsTherearetwopairsofcontradictorieswithinthefourstandardcategoricalstatementforms.Contradictorystatementscan’tbothbefalseandcan’tbothbetrue.ContradictionsUAAllG1areG2.ContradictionPNSomeG1arenotG2.UNAllG1arenotG2.ContradictionPASomeG1areG2.Ifyouknowthat“Allphilosophersaresmart,”istrue,itfollowsthat“Somephilosophersarenots