05 宗教人类学

宗教人类学鲍伊，2004，《宗教人类学导论》，北京：中国人民大学出版社WhatisReligion?AnthonyF.C.Wallacedefinedreligionas“beliefandritualconcernedwithsupernaturalbeings,powers,andforces”.Thesupernaturalistheextraordinaryrealmoutside(butbelievedtoimpingeon)theobservableworld.Itisnonempiricalandinexplicableinordinaryterms.Itmustbeaccepted“onfaith.”Supernaturalbeings---godsandgoddesses,ghosts,andsouls---arenotofthematerialworld.OriginsofReligionWhendidreligionbegin?Nooneknowsforsure.Anystatementaboutwhen,why,andhowreligionarose,oranydescriptionofitsoriginalnature,canonlybespeculative.AnimismSirEdwardTylorthoughtthatreligionwasbornaspeopletriedtounderstandconditionsandeventstheycouldnotexplainbyreferencetodailyexperience.Tylorbelievedthatourancestors---andcontemporarynonindustrialpeoples---wereparticularlyintriguedwithdeath,dreaming,andtrance.Indreamsandtrances,peopleseeimagestheymayrememberwhentheywakeuporcomeoutofthetrancestate.Tylorconcludedthatattemptstoexplaindreamsandtrancesledearlyhumanstobelievethattwoentitiesinhabitthebody:oneactiveduringthedayandtheother---adoubleorsoul---activeduringsleepandtrancestates.Althoughtheynevermeet,theyarevitaltoeachother.Whenthedoublepermanentlyleavesthebody,thepersondies.FromtheLatinforsoul,anima,Tylornamedthisbeliefanimism.万物有灵论：所有的生物与非生物，以及人类，都具有灵魂（或生命力与人格）Tylorproposedthereligionevolvedthroughstages,beginningwithanimism.Polytheism(thebeliefinmultiplegods)andthenmonotheism(thebeliefinasingle,all-powerfuldeity)developedlater.Becausereligionoriginatedtoexplainthingspeopledidn’tunderstand,Tylorthoughtitwoulddeclineasscienceofferedbetterexplanationsformanythingsthatreligiononceelucidated.MagicandReligionMagicreferstosupernaturaltechniquesintendedtoaccomplishspecificaims.Thesetechniquesincludespells,formulas,andincantationsusedwithdeitiesorwithimpersonalforces.Magiciansuseimitativemagictoproduceadesiredeffectbyimitatingit.Ifmagicianswishtoinjureorkillsomeone,theymayimitatethateffectonanimageofthevictim.Stickingpinsin“voodoodolls”isanexample.Withcontagiousmagic,whateverisdonetoanobjectisbelievedtoanobjectisbelievedtoaffectapersonwhooncehadcontactwithit.Sometimespractitionersofcontagiousmagicusebodyproductsfromprospectivevictims---theirnailsorhair,forexample.Thespellperformedonthebodyproductisbelievedtoreachthepersoneventuallyandworkthedesiredresult.弗雷泽相信巫术先于宗教。当巫术被看作是骗人的把戏的时候，人们开始寻找其它的心理支持的手段，而且有了精神存在能够帮助他们产生错觉。当人们看到宗教也不灵光时，他们转向了科学。科学与巫术都立足于操纵自然法则的信仰（尽管只有前者是真实的），宗教与之相反，它信仰精灵。科学家与巫师都充满信心地操作他们的仪式，而祭司却充满恐惧地颤抖地献祭埃文斯－普理查德雄辩地将诸如泰勒、弗雷泽等人的理智主义的立场，描述为“假如我是一匹马”的荒谬。在缺乏任何真实证据的情况下，他们反身自问，如果自己是个“原始人”会怎么做，会如何将世界合理化。如果这些学者是正确的，那么文明的进步方向是越来越理性，而荒谬的推理将灭绝，但是相反，万物有灵论的和巫术的世界观、祖先崇拜、对至上存在的信仰，甚至在工业化的背景里，全都继续存在着，而且经常共处Anxiety,Control,SolaceReligionandmagicalsoentertherealmofhumanfeelings.Magicaltechniquescandispeldoubtsthatarisewhenoutcomesarebeyondhumancontrol.Religionhelpspeoplefacedeathandendurelifecrises.Whenpeoplefaceuncertaintyanddanger,accordingtoMalinowski,theyturntomagic.Howevermuchknowledgeandsciencehelpmaninallowinghimtoobtainwhathewants,theyareunablecompletelytocontrolchance,toeliminateaccidents,toforeseetheunexpectedturnofnaturalevents,ortomakehumanhandiworkreliableandadequatetoallpracticalrequirements.MalinowskinotedthatitwasonlywhenconfrontedbysituationstheycouldnotcontrolthatTrobrianders,outofpsychologicalstress,turnedfromtechnologytomagic.Despiteourimprovingtechnicalskills,wecan’tstillcontroleveryoutcome,andmagicpersistsincontemporarysocieties.AccordingtoMalinowski,magicisusedtoestablishcontrol,butreligion“isbornoutof…therealtragediesofhumanlife”.Religionoffersemotionalcomfort,particularlywhenpeoplefaceacrisis.如同理智主义者的论证一样，马林诺夫斯基（以及弗洛伊德）的情感主义理论，只是猜测性的。埃文斯－普理查德注意到，尽管情感、愿望和冲动无可怀疑地在宗教中发挥作用，但并非只要有宗教的或巫术的行为，就会自发地产生马林诺夫斯基所假定的效果我们面对的是“假如我是一匹马”的另一种论证：“如果我们要举行原始人那样的仪式，我们便假定我们是处在情感混乱的状态中，因为，要不然的话，我们的理性将告诉我们，那些仪式客观上是无用的。”Anotherdefinitionofreligionfocusesonbodiesofpeoplewhogathertogetherregularlyforworship.Thesecongregantsoradherentssubscribetoandinternalizeacommonsystemofmeaning.Theyaccept(adheretoorbelievein)asetofdoctrinesinvolvingtherelationshipbetweentheindividualanddivinity.EmileDurkheim,anearlyscholarofreligion,stressedreligiouseffervescence,thebubblingupofcollectiveemotionalintensitygeneratedbyworship.VictorTurnerupdatedDurkheim’snotion,usingthetermcommunitas,anintensecommunityspirit,afeelingofgreatsocialsolidarity,equality,andtogetherness.杜尔凯姆的主要兴趣，不在于宗教的起源，而是在于宗教的功能，他强调的不是个体的心理，而是社会的群体宗教是社会之社会价值的投射，即使宗教的社会起源被掩盖了，解释并相信宗教是一种谬误，但是由于宗教的功效是真实的，因而它是真实的Totemism图腾：这是个奥吉布瓦（加拿大的阿尔冈昆人）语的词，ototeman这个表达可以翻译成“他是我的一个亲戚”。一个亲戚是指同一个外婚群体或氏族（即一个不能结婚的亲属群体）。每一个氏族都以一个动物物种或图腾命名。Totemscanbeanimals,plants,orgeographicfeatures.Membersofeachtotemicgroupbelievethemselvestobedescendantsoftheirtotem.对于麦克伦南来说，图腾崇拜来源于对植物和动物的崇拜（拜物教），并且是与外婚制的氏族结构和单系血统的群体结合在一起的列维－施特劳斯认为图腾崇拜完全不应该看作宗教的一个方面，问题不在于一个氏族与一种特定的动物或图腾生物有某种对应关系，而在于图腾生物之间的结构关系，它用来思考和表达社会群体之间的关系将社会组织化为一个氏族，将一个自然物种或现象的名字赋予特定的氏族（如熊、鹰或彩虹氏族），最后是维持氏族与其图腾象征的仪式联系。这三种因素可以而且是彼此独立发生的图腾是一种分类手段，用来调整人类群体和以及他们与自然界的关系Totemismusesnatureasamodelforsociety.Thetotemsareusuallyani