---Syntactic relations(句子关系)

4.4.3ModifiersModifierswhichspecifiesoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.(修饰成分详细地说明了中心语具有选择性的可表达特征.)ThemostcommonmodifiersofNsareadjectivephrasesandthoseofverbsareadverbphrasesandprepositionalphraseswhichdescribemannerandtime.4.4.3ModifiersModifierswhichspecifiesoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.(修饰成分详细地说明了中心语具有选择性的可表达特征.)ThemostcommonmodifiersofNsareadjectivephrasesandthoseofverbsareadverbphrasesandprepositionalphraseswhichdescribemannerandtime.ModifierPositioninEnglishModifierpositionexamplePrecedetheheadPPAdvPAPfollowtheheadPrecedeorfollowtheheadaverycarefulgirlopenwithcarereadcarefully;carefullyreadModifierPositioninEnglishpositionModifierModifierPositioninEnglishpositionAPModifierModifierPositioninEnglishpositionPrecedetheheadAPModifierModifierPositioninEnglishpositionaverycarefulgirlPrecedetheheadAPModifierModifierPositioninEnglishpositionexampleaverycarefulgirlPrecedetheheadAPModifierModifierPositioninEnglishpositionopenwithcareexampleaverycarefulgirlPrecedetheheadAPModifierModifierPositioninEnglishpositionfollowtheheadopenwithcareexampleaverycarefulgirlPrecedetheheadAPModifierModifierPositioninEnglishpositionModifierModifierPositioninEnglishAPModifierModifierPositioninEnglishPPAPModifierModifierPositioninEnglishAdvPPPAPModifierModifierPositioninEnglishpositionAdvPPPAPModifierModifierPositioninEnglishPrecedetheheadAdvPPPAPModifierModifierPositioninEnglishfollowtheheadPrecedetheheadAdvPPPAPModifierModifierPositioninEnglishPrecedeorfollowtheheadfollowtheheadPrecedetheheadAdvPPPAPModifierModifierPositioninEnglishexamplePrecedeorfollowtheheadfollowtheheadPrecedetheheadAdvPPPAPModifierModifierPositioninEnglishaverycarefulgirlPrecedeorfollowtheheadfollowtheheadPrecedetheheadAdvPPPAPModifierModifierPositioninEnglishopenwithcareaverycarefulgirlPrecedeorfollowtheheadfollowtheheadPrecedetheheadAdvPPPAPModifierPositioninEnglishreadcarefully;carefullyreadopenwithcareaverycarefulgirlPrecedeorfollowtheheadfollowtheheadPrecedetheheadAdvPPPAPModifierPositioninEnglishTheExpandedXPRuleTheRule:XP→(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)ExplanationModifier:specifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheadsThisruleallowsamodifiertooccureitherbeforetheheadorafterit.TheExpandedXPRuleTheRule:XP→(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)ExplanationModifier:specifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheadsThisruleallowsamodifiertooccureitherbeforetheheadorafterit.4.5Sentences(TheSRule)TheSRule:S→NPVPExplanation:ThecombinationofanNPandVPyieldsasentence;Sdoesnothaveaninternalstructure,unlikeaphrase.Thisrulestandsforatraditionalbelief4.5Sentences(TheSRule)TheSRule:S→NPVPExplanation:ThecombinationofanNPandVPyieldsasentence;Sdoesnothaveaninternalstructure,unlikeaphrase.Thisrulestandsforatraditionalbelief4.5Sentences(TheSRule)TheSRule:S→NPVPExplanation:ThecombinationofanNPandVPyieldsasentence;Sdoesnothaveaninternalstructure,unlikeaphrase.ThisrulestandsforatraditionalbeliefStructuralistSchool(结构主义学派)----Saussure(索绪尔)Saussure:aSwisslinguistandsemioticianwhoseideaslaidafoundationformanysignificantdevelopmentsbothinlinguisticsandsemioticsinthe20thcentury.Heiswidelyconsideredoneofthefathersof20th-centurylinguisticsandoneoftwomajorfathersofsemiotics.StructuralistSchool(结构主义学派)----Saussure(索绪尔)Saussure:aSwisslinguistandsemioticianwhoseideaslaidafoundationformanysignificantdevelopmentsbothinlinguisticsandsemioticsinthe20thcentury.Heiswidelyconsideredoneofthefathersof20th-centurylinguisticsandoneoftwomajorfathersofsemiotics.Syntacticrelations（句子关系）Syntacticrelations----thewaysinwhichwords,wordgroupsorphrasesformsentences.Threekindsofsyntacticrelations:1.PositionalRelations(位置关系)2.RelationsofSubstitutability(替代关系)3.RelationsofCo-occurrence(共现关系)Syntacticrelations（句子关系）Syntacticrelations（句子关系）1.Positionalrelation（位置关系）“Positionalrelation”,or“wordorder”,referstothesequentialarrangementtowordsinalanguage.ItisamanifestationofacertainaspectofwhatSaussurecalled“SyntagmaticRelations”（组合关系）,orofwhatotherlinguistscall“HorizontalRelations”（横向关系）or“ChainRelations”（链向关系）.Syntagmaticrelations（组合关系）Asyntagmaticrelationshipisonewheresignsoccurinsequenceorparallelandoperatetogethertocreatemeaning.Thesequentialnatureoflanguagemeansthatlinguisticsignshavesyntagmaticrelationships.TheSyntagmaticrelation----therelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence,orbetweenelementswhichareallpresent.horizontalrelations(横向关系)chainrelations(链状关系)ExampleforSyntagmatic1)Theboykickedtheball.2)Boytheballkickedthe.3)Theballkickedtheboy.2.Relationsofsubstitutability（替代关系）Relationsofsubstitutability----classesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsamesentencestructures.Saussurecalledthem“AssociativeRelations”（联想关系）.Otherpeoplecallthem“ParadigmaticRelations”（聚合关系).ParadigmaticRelations(聚合关系)•Aparadigmaticrelation(associativerelations)----arelationthatholdsbetweenelementsofthesamecategory,i.e.elementsthatcanbesubstitutedforeachother.•Theoppositionbetween‘paradigmatic’and‘syntagmatic’relationsisanimportantdichotomy（一分为二）ofstructuralistlinguistics.ve