语言学期末考试重点

Whatislanguage?“Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.”System:linguisticelementsarearrangedsystematically,ratherthanrandomly.Arbitrary:e.g.bookSymbolic:peopleusethesoundsorvocalformstosymbolizewhattheywishtoreferto.Vocal:languageisprimarilyvocal,ratherthanwrittenHuman-specific:Designfeaturesoflanguage语言的本质特征Arbitrariness（任意性）Saussure:theformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaningArbitraryrelationshipbetweenthesoundofamorphemeanditsmeaning,evenwithonomatopoeicwords:ThedogbarksbowwowinEnglishbut“汪汪汪”inChinese.Onomatopoeia:wordsthatsoundlikethesoundstheydescribeDuality（二重性）Languageconsistsoftwolevelsofstructures.Thelower(secondary)levelisadefinitesetofmeaninglesssoundswhichcombinetoformmeaningfulunits(morphemes,words,suchashe,left)whichconstituteahigher(primary)level.ProductivityorCreativity（创造性）Becauseofdualitythehumanspeakerisabletocombinethebasiclinguisticunitstoformaninfinitesetofsentences,mostofwhichareneverbeforeproducedorheard.Wordscanbeusedinnewwaystomeannewthings,andcanbeinstantlyunderstoodbypeoplewhohavenevercomeacrossthatusagebefore.Displacement（移位性）Onecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords,onecanrefertorealandunrealthings,thingsofthepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.Ourlanguageenablesustocommunicateaboutthingsthatdonotexistordonotyetexist.e.g.Adogcannottellpeoplethatitsmasterwillbehomeinafewdays.Culturaltransmission（文化传递性）Languageisculturallytransmitted.Itcannotbetransmittedthroughheredity.e.g.apersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneotherthanageneticonelikethedog’sbarkingsystem.e.g.aChinesebabybornandbroughtupinLondonanEnglishchildbroughtupinBeijingInterchangeability（互换性）Itreferstothatmancanbothproduceandreceivemessage.OnecanbeaspeakerorahearerSpecialization（专门性）ItreferstothefactthatmandoesnothaveatotalphysicalinvolvementintheactofcommunicationFunctionoflanguage(语言功能)Phaticfunction/communion（寒暄功能）Languageisusedtoestablishanatmosphereormaintainsocialcontactbetweenthespeakerandthehearer.e.g.Greetings,farewellandcommentsDirectivefunction（指令功能Languageisusedtogetthehearertodosomething.Mostimperativesentencesareofthisfunction.e.g.openthedoorInformativefunction（信息功能）Languageisusedtotellsomething,togiveinformation,ortoreasonthingsout.Declarativesentences:e.g.IsawheryesterdayonthestreetInterrogativefunction（疑问功能）Languageisusedtoaskforinformationfromothers.Allquestionsexpectingrepliesservethisfunction.e.g.what’syourname?whattimeisitnow?Expressivefunction（表达功能）Languageisusedtorevealthespeaker’sattitudesandfeelings.e.g.Oh,myGod!Evocativefunction（唤起功能）Languageisusedtocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearers.e.g.Jokes,advertising,andpropagandaPerfomativefunction（施为功能）Languageisusedtodothingsortoperformacts.e.g.Inowpronounceyouhusbandandwife.Descriptiveandprescriptivegrammars（描写式和规定式语法）Descriptivegrammarsattempttotellwhatisinthelanguage,whileprescriptivegrammarstellpeoplewhatshouldbeinthelanguage.Astraditionalgrammarstriedtolaydownrules,theyareoftencalledprescriptive.Mostmodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.e.g.A:whoisthat?B:It’sme./It’sI.Synchronicanddiachroniclinguistics（共时与历时语言学）Whenwestudylanguageatoneparticulartime,itiscalledsynchroniclinguistics.Whenwestudylanguagedevelopmentsthroughtime,itiscalleddiachronicorhistoricallinguistics.Synchroniclinguisticsfocusesonthestateoflanguageatanypointinhistorywhilediachroniclinguisticsfocusesonthedifferencesintwoormorethantwostatesoflanguageoverdecadesorcenturies.Langueandparole（语言与言语F.deSaussuremakeanimportantdistinctionbetweenlangueandparole.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity.Parolereferstoparticularrealizationsoflangue.Langueisthesocial,conventionalsideoflanguage,whileparoleisindividualizedspeech.Competenceandperformance（语言能力和语言应用）AccordingtoChomsky,competencereferstotheknowledgethatnativespeakershaveoftheirlanguageasasystemofabstractformalrelations,whileperformancereferstotheiractuallinguisticbehavior,thatis,theactualuseofthisknowledge.Chapter2TheSoundsofLanguagePhoneticsThestudyofthespeechsoundsthatoccurinallhumanlanguagesiscalledphonetics.Thestudyofsoundscanbedividedintothreemainareas:ArticulatoryPhonetics;AcousticPhonetics;PerceptualorAuditoryPhoneticsClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsSpeechsoundsofalllanguagesarebroadlyclassifiedintovowelsandconsonants.Vowels:thereisnoobstructiontotheflowofairasitpassesfromthelarynxtothelips.Consonants:wearemakingitdifficultorimpossiblefortheairtopassthroughthemouth.ConsonantsEnglishconsonantcanbeclassifiedaccordingtothemannerofarticulationandtheplaceofarticulation.Themannerofarticulation:itreferstothetypeofstrictureinvolvedintheproductionofaconsonant(theparticularwaytheairstreamisobstructed).Theplaceofarticulation:itreferstotheinvolvementofthearticulatorsintheproductionofaparticularconsonant(wheretheairstreamismostobstructed).ThemannerofarticulationPlosives/stops(爆破音)——/p/,/b/,/t/,/d/,/k/,/g/Fricatives（摩擦音）——/f/,/v/,/s/,/z/,/θ/,/ð/,/∫/,/ʒ/,/h/Affricates(破擦音)——/t∫/,/dʒ/Liquids（流音）——/l/,/r/Nasals（鼻音）——/m/,/n/,/ŋ/Gl