新标准大学英语三unit2

TextCulturalChildhoods1WhenIlookbackonmyownchildhoodinthe1970sand1980sandcompareitwithchildrentoday,itremindsmeofthatfamoussentenceThepastisaforeigncountry:Theydothingsdifferentlythere(fromL.P.Hartley'snovelTheGo-Between).Eveninarelativelyshortperiodoftime,Icanseetheenormoustransformationsthathavetakenplaceinchildren'slivesandinthewaystheyarethoughtaboutandtreated.Text2LookingfurtherbackIcanseevastdifferencesbetweencontemporaryandhistoricalchildhoods.Today,childrenhavefewresponsibilities,theirlivesarecharacterizedbyplaynotwork,schoolnotpaidlabour,familyratherthanpubliclifeandconsumptioninsteadofproduction.Yetthisisallrelativelyrecent.Ahundredyearsago,a12yearoldworkinginafactorywouldhavebeenperfectlyacceptable.Now,itwouldcausesocialservices'interventionandtheprosecutionofbothparentsandfactoryowner.Text3ThedifferencesbetweentheexpectationsplacedonchildrentodayandthoseplacedontheminthepastareneatlysummedupbytwoAmericanwriters,BarbaraEhrenreichandDeirdreEnglish.ComparingchildhoodsinAmericatodaywiththoseoftheAmericancolonialperiod(1600–1776),theyhavewritten:Today,afouryearoldwhocantiehisorhershoesisimpressive.Incolonialtimes,four-year-oldgirlsknittedstockingsandmittensandcouldproduceintricateembroidery:Atagesixtheyspunwool.Agood,industriouslittlegirlwascalled'Mrs‘insteadof'Miss'inappreciationofhercontributiontothefamilyeconomy:Shewasnot,strictlyspeaking,achild.Text4Thesechangingideasaboutchildrenhaveledmanysocialscientiststoclaimthatchildhoodisasocialconstruction.Theyusethistermtomeanthatunderstandingsofchildhoodarenotthesameeverywhereandthatwhileallsocietiesacknowledgethatchildrenaredifferentfromadults,howtheyaredifferentandwhatexpectationsareplacedonthem,changeaccordingtothesocietyinwhichtheylive.Text5SocialanthropologistshaveshownthisintheirstudiesofpeopleswithverydifferentunderstandingsoftheworldtoWesternones.JeanBriggshasworkedwiththeInuitoftheCanadianArcticandhasdescribedhow,withinthesecommunities,growingupislargelyseenasaprocessofacquiringthought,reasonandunderstanding(knowninInuitasihuma).TextYoungchildrendon'tpossessthesequalitiesandareeasilyangered,cryfrequentlyandareincapableofunderstandingtheexternaldifficultiesfacingthecommunity,suchasshortagesoffood.Becausetheycan'tbereasonedwith,anddon'tunderstand,parentstreatthemwithagreatdealoftoleranceandleniency.It'sonlywhentheyareolderandbegintoacquirethoughtthatparentsattempttoteachthemordisciplinethem.Text6Incontrast,childrenonthePacificislandofTonga,studiedbyHelenMorton,areregularlybeatenbytheirparentsandoldersiblings.Theyareseenasbeingclosertomadpeoplethanadultsbecausetheylackthehighlyprizedqualityofsocialcompetence(orpotoastheTonganscallit).Theyareregularlytoldoffforbeingclumsyandachildwhofallsovermaybelaughedat,shoutedat,orbeaten.TextChildrenarethoughtofasmischievous;theycryorwanttofeedsimplybecausetheyarenaughty,andbeatingsareattheirmostseverebetweentheagesofthreeandfivewhenchildrenareseenasparticularlywilful.Parentsbelievethatsocialcompetencecanonlybeachievedthroughdisciplineandphysicalpunishment,andtreattheirchildreninwaysthathaveseemedveryharshtooutsiders.Text7Inothercases,ideasaboutchildrenareradicallydifferent.Forexample,theBeng,asmallethnicgroupinWestAfrica,assumethatveryyoungchildrenknowandunderstandeverythingthatissaidtothem,inwhateverlanguagetheyareaddressed.TheBeng,who'vebeenextensivelystudiedbyanotheranthropologist,AlmaGottlieb,believeinaspiritworldwherechildrenlivebeforetheyarebornandwheretheyknowallhumanlanguagesandunderstandallcultures.TextLifeinthespiritworldisverypleasantandthechildrenhavemanyfriendsthereandareoftenveryreluctanttoleaveitforanearthlyfamily(afictionalaccountofaspiritchild'sjourneybetweenthespiritandtheearthlyworldisgiveninBenOkri'snovel,TheFamishedRoad).Whentheyareborn,theyremainincontactwiththisotherworldforseveralyears,andmaydecidetoreturnthereiftheyarenotproperlylookedafter.Soparentstreatyoungchildrenwithgreatcaresothatthey'renottemptedtoreturn,andalsowithsomereverence,becausethey'reincontactwiththespiritworldinawaythatadultsaren't.Text8There'satendencytoviewchildrenintheUK,andintheWesternworldingeneral,asincompetentanddependent.Butthisisn'tthecasethroughouttheworld.Inmanysocietieschildrenworkandcontributetothefamilyinwhateverwaytheycanfromaveryearlyage.Agoodexampleofthisischildcare.IntheUK,itisillegalforachildundertheageof14tolookafteranotherchildunsupervised,becausethey'redeemedincompetentandirresponsible.TextInothercultures,thisisnotthecase.MichelleJohnsonhaswrittenabouttheFulaniofWestAfricadescribinghowbytheageoffour,girlsareexpectedtobeabletocarefortheiryoungersiblings,fetchwaterandfirewoodandbytheageofsixwillbepoundinggrain,producingmilkandbutterandsellingthesealongsidetheirmothersinthemarket.Text9Acrosstheworld,amongtheYanamamöoftheAmazonianrainforest,anotheranthropologist,NapoleonChagnon,hasshownhowdifferentthesechildren'schildhoodsarefromWesternones,andalsohowdifferentlyboysandgirlsgrowupincomparisonwithotherpartsoftheworld.HehaswrittenhowaYanamamögirlisexpectedtohelphermotherfromayoungageandbytheageoftenwillb