Chapter-Five-Syntax-(I)-----Syntactic-Relations

1ChapterFiveSyntax(I)---SyntacticRelations0.IntroductionChapter4dealswiththesmallestmeaningfulunitatthegrammaticallevel---morpheme.Chapters5,6,7areaboutsyntax,whichisconcernedwiththelargestmeaningfulunitatthegrammaticallevel---sentence.Twowaystostudysentences:Insyntax,sentencescanbestudiedintwodifferentways:i.Thestaticstudy（静态研究）ofsentencesmeansthatwedescribethestructuresofsentencestoillustratethepartsofasentenceandrelationshipsamongthem.ii.Thedynamicstudy（动态研究）ofsentencesmeansthatweexaminehowsentencesaregeneratedbysyntacticrules.Twotheoreticalbases:i.Thestaticstudyfollowsthetheoryofstructurallinguistics（结构语言学).ii.ThedynamicstudyfollowsthetheoryofTransformational-GenerativeGrammar(TGgrammar)(转换生成语法).Tomakeastructuraldescriptionofsentences,weshalldescribevariouskindsofrelationsbetweenwordsandphrasesofsentences.Therearethreekindsofrelationsbetweenthem.1.Sequential(syntagmatic)relations（顺序／横向关系）i.Definition:Insyntax,sequentialorsyntagmaticrelationreferstothelinearorderingofthewordsandthephraseswithinasentence.ii.Rearrangementofthewordsofasentenceyieldseitheranungrammaticalsentenceoradifferentsentence.2.Substitutional(paradigmatic)relations（替换／纵向关系）i.Definition:substitutionalorparadigmaticrelationisakindofrelationbetweenlinguisticformsinasentenceandlinguisticformsoutsidethesentence.Thatistosay,ifthewordsorphrasesinasentencecanbereplacedbywordsandphrasesoutsidethesentenceandtheresultingsentenceisstillgrammatical,thenwesaythereplacingformsandreplacedformshaveparadigmaticrelations.ii.Syntacticcategory（句法范畴）2A.Definition:Thelinguisticformsthathaveparadigmaticrelationsbelongtothesamesyntacticcategory.B.Classification:Thesyntacticcategoriescanbefurtherdividedintotwogroups:lexicalcategoryandnonlexicalcategory.D.Attention:Aphraseoften,butnotalwayscontainsmorethanoneword.Sometimes,itmaybeasingleword.3.Hierarchicalrelations（等级关系）i.Definition:Hierarchicalrelationshowsustheinnerlayeringofsentences.ii.Whatmeanscanweusetorevealthehierarchicalstructureofasentence?ICanalysis.例如iii.Threelevelsorhierarchies:sentence-level,phrases-level,word-leveliv.Threeterms:ultimateconstituents,immediateconstituents,constituentsv.Structuralambiguity（结构歧义）：Thesamephraseorsentencemayhavetwoormoreinterpretationsdependingonthehierarchicalarrangementofitsconstituents.Suchacaseiscalledstructuralambiguity结构歧义.例如：参见课本120页例（6）、（7）4.Identifyingsyntacticcategories鉴别句法范畴34.0Howcanwedecidetowhichsyntacticcategoryacertainlinguisticformbelongs?Answer:Ashasbeensaidbefore,thelinguisticformsthathavesubstitutionalrelationsbelongtothesamesyntacticcategory.Thus,ifwecanlabelthelinguisticformswithappropriatesyntacticcategories,wethencandecidewhethertheyhavesubstitutionalrelationsornot.Thenhowcanwedecidetowhichsyntacticcategoryacertainlinguisticformbelongs?Generallyspeaking,wemaydetermineitaccordingtomorphological词法特征anddistributional分布特征featuressharedbylinguisticformsthatbelongtothesameclass.Here,morphologicalfeaturesrefertoinflectionalandderivationalaffixesthelinguisticformsinquestioncantake;distributionalfeaturesrefertothesyntacticcontextsinwhichthelinguisticformsinquestioncanoccur.4.1Nounsandnounphrasesi.MorphologicalfeaturesA.inflectionalsuffixes:｛z｝1(pluralnumbermarker)and｛z｝2(possessivecasemarker)B.derivationalsuffixes:-ment,-ion,-hood,-ship,-ness,-ence,-anceii.DistributionalfeaturesThetest-framesusedtotestnounsornounphrases:A.The_______waslost.B.Thereisa______intheroom.C.Hesaw_______.D.________wasinthegarden.4.2Verbsandverbphrasesi.MorphologicalfeaturesA.inflectionalsuffixes:｛z｝3(thirdpersonsingularpresenttensemarker);｛d｝(pasttensemarker);｛en｝(pastparticiple);and｛iN｝(presentparticiple)B.derivationalaffixes:de-,be-,dis-,en-,-en,-ify,-ize,-ateii.DistributionalfeaturesThetestframesusedforverbsandverbphrases:A.Letus__________.B.Theboy________.44.3Adjectivesi.MorphologicalfeaturesA.inflectionalsuffixes:-er,-estB.derivationalsuffixes:-ish,-ful,-y,-less,-ary,-ousii.DistributionalfeaturesThetestframesusedforadjectivesandadjectivephrases:A.Thevery________girlwasvery______.B.Horsesare________animals.4.4Adverbsi.MorphologicalfeaturesA.inflectionalsuffixes:-er,-estB.derivationalsuffixes:-lyii.Distributionalfeatures:WithregardtothedistributionoftheclassAdverbandAdverbialphrase,wecannotdescribeitintermsofaframeaswedidfortheothercategoriesbecausetheyusuallydonothaveafixedpositioninasentence.Theymaybeusedtomodifyadjectives,otheradverbs,verbsorsentences.HierarchiesandLabeledICanalysis5.1句子等级结构的四种表示法：1）直接成分分析；2）标记法直接成分分析；3）短语标记法；4）括号标记法。（1）直接成分分析：WehavestudiedthemeansofICanalysisusedtoanalyzethehierarchicalstructureofsentences.Nowlet'scomparethehierarchicalstructuresofthefollowingsentences.1)Theseapplesareverysweet.2)LittleTomrunsveryfast.3)Hisbrotherstayedathome.Thesesentencesmayberepresentedbythefollowingtree-branchdiagrams:5Thesethreediagramsappeartobethesame.Somepeoplemaythinktheyhaveacommonstructure.Butactually,theydiffergreatlyfromeachother.So,byusingICanalysis,wecannotindicatetheradicaldifferencesofthehierarchicalstructures.（2）标记法直接成分分析：Inordertoovercomethisproblem,wemo