句法学

Chapter4Syntax（句法学）Syntaxisthestudyofthepartofthehumanlinguisticsystemthatdetermineshowsentencesareputtogetheroutofwords,or,inanotherword,howarewordsputtogethertoformasentence?Syntaxhassomethingtodowithourknowledgeofgrammaticalfunctionofeachpartofasentenceandwithspeaker’sabilitytoproduceandunderstandaninfinitesetofpossiblesentences.Syntaxisthestudyofhowsentencesarestructured,formed;orinotherwords,ittriestostatewhatwordscanbecombinedwithotherstoformsentencesandinwhatorder.（句法学研究句子中词的排列，还研究词与词之间是以什么方式表现出来的，如词序或曲折变化。）4.1SentenceStructureHowisasentencestructured?Oneaspectofthesyntacticstructureofsentencesisthedivisionofasentenceintophrases,andthosephrasesintofurtherphrases,andsoforth.Anotheraspectofthesyntacticstructureofasentenceis“movement”relationsthatholdbetweenonesyntacticpositioninasentenceandanother.Thesyntacticliteraturedealingwiththestudyofhowsentencesarestructuredthrowsusahintthatsyntacticresearchshouldnotonlyconcentrateonhowsentencesaremergedoutoftheirparts,units,orconstituents,butalsoonhowconstituentsaremovedaccordingtocertainrules.4.1.1ConstituentsAfewconcepts:immediateconstituent（直接成分）a.Constituent(构成成分)ultimateconstituent（最终成分）b.Immediateconstituent:Canbefurthersegmenteduntilweobtainthesmallestgrammaticalunits.c.Ultimateconstituent:Thesmallestgrammaticalunitobtainedthroughsegmentation.d.Construction(结构):Itiscomposedofconstituentsandisabletobesegmented.Or:Itisarelationshipbetweenconstituents.（词内的词素，句子内的词组合起来的过程或结果。）ICAnalysis(直接成分分析法):todividethesentenceupintoimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituents.（把句子按其组成部分/成分用两进制切分法/二分法一直划到最小的语法单位－又称最终成分－词素。）(Lookatthefirstfewparagraphsunder4.1.1)Inanotherword,thesegmentationofthesentenceupintoitsimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttingsuntilitsultimateconstituentsareobtainedisanimportantapproachtotherealizationofthenatureoflanguage,calledImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis).Theanalysiscanbecarriedoutinwaysoftreediagrams(树形法），bracketing(括号法）,uprightlines（竖线法）,oranyother.(LookattheexamplesonP.98-99.)TheadvantageofICAnalysisliesinitsfunctionthatnotonlyshowslinearrelationship,butalsohierarchicalones.(不仅能够表明句中词的线性排列，还能在形式上划分句子的层次，表现出句子的层次性结构。）AnotheradvantageofICAnalysis:Ithelpstoaccountfortheambiguityofcertainconstructions.Forexample:oldmenandwomenoldmenandwomenAdisadvantageofICAnalysis:Intheactualanalysis,weshallfindeitherultimateorintermediateconstituentswhosecomponentpartsareseparatedbyastringofoneormoreforms.Inthisway,therewillbeaproblemastowheretomakethenextcut.Thisiscalleddiscontinuityandsuchconstituentsarecalleddiscontinuousconstituents（非连续成分）.e.g.look…up,bring…in,help…out,lookforwardto,etc.直接成分分析法把话语一直分到词素，忽略了词和习语作为词汇单位的整体作用。如：look…up,bring…in,help…out,lookforwardto,三长两短，七上八下，如果切分到词素，就会忽视习语的整体意义，从而破坏语义的完整性。(HaveabriefdiscussionontheexercisesonP.100.)4.1.2SentenceTypesSentencesinanylanguageareconstructedfromarathersmallsetofbasicstructuralpatternsandthroughcertainprocessesinvolvingtheexpansionofthesebasicpatterns.Eachofthelongersentencesofalanguageisstructuredinthesamewayasoneofarelativelysmallnumberofshortsentenceswhichareimpossibletoreducetoashortform.Theseshortsentenceshavethebasicsentencetypes.Therearedifferentwaysindealingwithsentencetypes.4.1.2.1StructuralApproachAccordingtotheirstructuresandforms,sentencescanbedividedintosimplesentences,coordinateorcompoundsentences(并列句),andcomplexsentences(复合句).Intermsofthelinearorderofconstituents,Englishhassevenbasicclausetypes:1.SV—Someonewaslaughing;Tomiscoming.2.SVO—Mysisterenjoysparties;IlikeEnglish.3.SVC—Theybecameangry;Heisclever.4.SVA—IwenttoNewYork;Theyworkhard.5.SVOO—MarygaveJohnabook.Theoldmanteachesuschemistry.6.SVOC—Mostpeopleconsiderthebookexpensive.WefoundJaneanhonestgirl.7.SVOA—Youmustputthetoydownstairs.Shedidherhomeworkcarelessly.4.1.2.2FunctionalApproachAccordingtotheirdiscoursefunctions,Englishsentencesareusuallyclassifiedintofourtypes:declarative(陈述句),interrogative(疑问句),imperative(祈使句),andexclamatory(感叹句).Associatedwiththefoursentencetypesarefourclassesofdiscoursefunctions.Statementsareprimarilyusedtoconveyinformation,questionsareprimarilyusedtoseekinformationonaspecificpoint,directivesareusedtoinstructsomebodytodosomething,andexclamationsareusedforexpressingtheextenttowhichthespeakerfeelaboutorisimpressedbysomething.However,theirrelationsarenotfixed.Forexample,astatementcanbeusedtomakeanassertion(主张)，,tomakeaprediction,ortoofferanapology.Assertion,prediction,andapologyarepragmaticcategoriesthatindicatehowsentencesareusedinactualutterances.4.1.2.3CommunicativeApproachInordertoaccountforsinglefreeutterancesincommunicationandtoseparatethemintotheirdifferentkinds,Friesisolatesthosestretchesofspeechthatareboundedbythespeakerandcallsthem“utteranceunits”.However,speechformsinvolvenotonlythesituationsinwhichtheyusuallyoccurbutalsotheregularresponseswhichtheyproduce.Accordingtotheircommunicativefunctions,Friesintroducestwotypesofutterancesinwhichresponsesareelicited:1.Communicativeutterances,whichcanelicitthreekindsofresponses:i)Utte