土木工程英文文献及翻译

CivilengineeringCivilengineeringisaprofessionalengineeringdisciplinethatdealswiththedesign,construction,andmaintenanceofthephysicalandnaturallybuiltenvironment,includingworkslikebridges,roads,canals,dams,andbuildings.[1][2][3]Civilengineeringistheoldestengineeringdisciplineaftermilitaryengineering,[4]anditwasdefinedtodistinguishnon-militaryengineeringfrommilitaryengineering.[5]Itistraditionallybrokenintoseveralsub-disciplinesincludingenvironmentalengineering,geotechnicalengineering,structuralengineering,transportationengineering,municipalorurbanengineering,waterresourcesengineering,materialsengineering,coastalengineering,[4]surveying,andconstructionengineering.[6]Civilengineeringtakesplaceonalllevels:inthepublicsectorfrommunicipalthroughtonationalgovernments,andintheprivatesectorfromindividualhomeownersthroughtointernationalcompanies.HistoryofthecivilengineeringprofessionSeealso:HistoryofstructuralengineeringEngineeringhasbeenanaspectoflifesincethebeginningsofhumanexistence.TheearliestpracticesofCivilengineeringmayhavecommencedbetween4000and2000BCinAncientEgyptandMesopotamia(AncientIraq)whenhumansstartedtoabandonanomadicexistence,thuscausinganeedfortheconstructionofshelter.Duringthistime,transportationbecameincreasinglyimportantleadingtothedevelopmentofthewheelandsailing.Untilmoderntimestherewasnocleardistinctionbetweencivilengineeringandarchitecture,andthetermengineerandarchitectweremainlygeographicalvariationsreferringtothesameperson,oftenusedinterchangeably.[7]TheconstructionofPyramidsinEgypt(circa2700-2500BC)mightbeconsideredthefirstinstancesoflargestructureconstructions.OtherancienthistoriccivilengineeringconstructionsincludetheParthenonbyIktinosinAncientGreece(447-438BC),theAppianWaybyRomanengineers(c.312BC),theGreatWallofChinabyGeneralMengT'ienunderordersfromCh'inEmperorShihHuangTi(c.220BC)[6]andthestupasconstructedinancientSriLankaliketheJetavanaramayaandtheextensiveirrigationworksinAnuradhapura.TheRomansdevelopedcivilstructuresthroughouttheirempire,includingespeciallyaqueducts,insulae,harbours,bridges,damsandroads.Inthe18thcentury,thetermcivilengineeringwascoinedtoincorporateallthingscivilianasopposedtomilitaryengineering.[5]Thefirstself-proclaimedcivilengineerwasJohnSmeatonwhoconstructedtheEddystoneLighthouse.[4][6]In1771SmeatonandsomeofhiscolleaguesformedtheSmeatonianSocietyofCivilEngineers,agroupofleadersoftheprofessionwhometinformallyoverdinner.Thoughtherewasevidenceofsometechnicalmeetings,itwaslittlemorethanasocialsociety.In1818theInstitutionofCivilEngineerswasfoundedinLondon,andin1820theeminentengineerThomasTelfordbecameitsfirstpresident.TheinstitutionreceivedaRoyalCharterin1828,formallyrecognisingcivilengineeringasaprofession.Itscharterdefinedcivilengineeringas:theartofdirectingthegreatsourcesofpowerinnaturefortheuseandconvenienceofman,asthemeansofproductionandoftrafficinstates,bothforexternalandinternaltrade,asappliedintheconstructionofroads,bridges,aqueducts,canals,rivernavigationanddocksforinternalintercourseandexchange,andintheconstructionofports,harbours,moles,breakwatersandlighthouses,andintheartofnavigationbyartificialpowerforthepurposesofcommerce,andintheconstructionandapplicationofmachinery,andinthedrainageofcitiesandtowns.[8]ThefirstprivatecollegetoteachCivilEngineeringintheUnitedStateswasNorwichUniversityfoundedin1819byCaptainAldenPartridge.[9]ThefirstdegreeinCivilEngineeringintheUnitedStateswasawardedbyRensselaerPolytechnicInstitutein1835.[10]ThefirstsuchdegreetobeawardedtoawomanwasgrantedbyCornellUniversitytoNoraStantonBlatchin1905.HistoryofcivilengineeringCivilengineeringistheapplicationofphysicalandscientificprinciples,anditshistoryisintricatelylinkedtoadvancesinunderstandingofphysicsandmathematicsthroughouthistory.Becausecivilengineeringisawiderangingprofession,includingseveralseparatespecializedsub-disciplines,itshistoryislinkedtoknowledgeofstructures,materialsscience,geography,geology,soils,hydrology,environment,mechanicsandotherfields.Throughoutancientandmedievalhistorymostarchitecturaldesignandconstructionwascarriedoutbyartisans,suchasstonemasonsandcarpenters,risingtotheroleofmasterbuilder.Knowledgewasretainedinguildsandseldomsupplantedbyadvances.Structures,roadsandinfrastructurethatexistedwererepetitive,andincreasesinscalewereincremental.[12]OneoftheearliestexamplesofascientificapproachtophysicalandmathematicalproblemsapplicabletocivilengineeringistheworkofArchimedesinthe3rdcenturyBC,includingArchimedesPrinciple,whichunderpinsourunderstandingofbuoyancy,andpracticalsolutionssuchasArchimedes'screw.Brahmagupta,anIndianmathematician,usedarithmeticinthe7thcenturyAD,basedonHindu-Arabicnumerals,forexcavation(volume)computations.[13]Civilengineerstypicallypossessanacademicdegreewithamajorincivilengineering.ThelengthofstudyforsuchadegreeisusuallythreetofiveyearsandthecompleteddegreeisusuallydesignatedasaBachelorofEngineering,thoughsomeuniversitiesdesignatethedegreeasaBachelorofScience.Thedegreegenerallyincludesunitscoveringphysics,mathematics,projectmanagement,designandspecificto