语言学教程Chapter3

ChapterThreeLexicon1.Whatisword?Aunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynativespeakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.Avaguedefinition.Threesensesareinvolvedindefining“word”,noneofwhichissatisfactorytocopewithallthesituations.1.1Threesensesof“word”Aphysicalunit:aclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentwopausesorblanks,egPhonological:Orthographic:Itiswonderful.Threewordsarerecognized.However,incasualspeechorwriting,itoftenbecomes:Phonological:Orthographic:It’swonderful.Aretheytwowordsorthree?Asetofforms:walk,walks,walking,walkedHowmanywordsarethere?Iusuallyhavedinnerat6butyesterdayIhaditatseven.Howmanytimesdidtheword“have”occur?AlexicalitemoralexemeAlexicalitemisanentryinadictionary.AlexemeWRITEincludesallofitsgrammaticalforms:write,writes,writing,wrote,writtenAgrammaticalunit:sentenceclausephrasewordmorphemeProblem:blackboard1.2IdentificationofwordsStability:stablelinguisticunits.chairman,butnot*manchairRelativeuninterruptibility:thoughwerecognizethreecomponentsintheworddisappointment,wecannotpauseandaddanothercomponentinbetween,asin*disinterestappointment.Butwecanaddanotherwordbetweenwords:Paul,(John)andMary...Aminimumfreeform:thesmallestunitthatcanconstituteacompleteutterancebyitself,eg--IsJanecomingtonight?--Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.1.3ClassificationofwordsVariablevs.InvariableWords:Variablewords:write,writes,writing,wrote,written;cat,cats.Invariablewords:since,when,seldom,through,etc.Grammaticalvs.LexicalWords:Grammatical/Functionwords:conjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns.Lexical/Contentwords:nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs.Closed-classvs.Open-classWords:Closed-classwords:Newmemberscannotnormallybeadded,egpronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,auxiliaries.Open-classwords:Newmemberscanbeadded,egnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.Wordclass:knownasPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar.Noun,verb,adjective,adverb,preposition,pronoun,conjunction,interjection,article,etc.Somenewtermsinwordclass:Particle:infinitiveto,negativenot,subordinateunitsinphrasalverbs“getby”,“lookback”,etc.Auxiliary:do,haveModalverbs:can,will,may,must,etc.Pro-forms:substitutesforotherterms.Pronoun:he,she,I,they,everyonePro-adjective:Yourcarisred.Soishis.Pro-verb:HespeaksEnglishbetterthanhedid.Pro-adverb:HehopestowinandIhopesotoo.Pro-locative:Hewentthere.Determiner:allthearticles,demonstratives,andquantifiersthatappearbeforethenounanditsmodifiers.Asmanyasthreedeterminersmaybeusedineachcaseandthereisafixedorderwhenthereismorethanone.PreCentralPostModifierNounallhermanygoodideashermanygoodideasallhergoodideasgoodideasmanygoodideasallgoodideaswhatagoodideatheonegoodideaafewideasbothmyfather’sparentsPredeterminers:all,both;half,one-third,three-quarters…;double,twice,threetimes…;such,what(exclamative)Centraldeterminers:the;this,these,that,those;PossP;we,us;you;which,what(relative),what(interrogative);a,another,some,any,no,either,neither;each,enough,much,more,most,less;afew,alittlePostdeterminers:every;many,several,few,little;one,two,three…;(a)dozen*theiralltrouble*fivetheallboys*allthisboy*allbothgirls2.MorphologyMorphology:thestudyofword-formation,ortheinternalstructureofwords,ortherulesbywhichwordsareformedfromsmallercomponents--morphemes.2.1MorphemesThesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.2.2TypesofmorphemesFreevs.Boundmorphemes:Freemorphemes:thosethatmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,egboy,girl,table,nation.Boundmorphemes:thosethatcannotoccuralone,eg-s,-ed,dis-,un-.Root:thebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity,egfriendasinunfriendliness.Rootsmaybefree:thosethatcanstandbythemselves,egblack+board;nation+-al;orbound:thosethatcannotstandbythemselves,eg-ceiveinreceive,perceive,conceive.Affix:thetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.Normallydividedintoprefix(dis-,un-)andsuffix(-en,-ify).Base:amorphemetowhichanaffixisadded,egfriendrootbasefriendlyroot/base+suffixbaseunfriendlyprefix+basebaseunfriendlinessbase+suffixbase?Stem:amorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixmaybeadded,egfriend+-s;write+-ing,possibility+-es.Inflection:grammaticalendings,egplural,tense,comparative,etc.Derivation:combinationofabaseandanaffixtoformanewword,egfriend+-lyfriendly.2.3Word-formationInflectionalMorphologyDerivational/LexicalMorphologyMorphology2.3.1InflectionNominalforms:boys,boy’sVerbforms:wants,wanted,wantingAdjective/adverbforms:smaller,smallest2.3.2CompoundingTwoormorefreerootscombinetomakeanewword.Nouncompounds:daybreak,playboy,haircut,windmillVerbcompounds:brainstorm,lipread,babysitAdjectivecompounds:gray-haired,insect-eating,dutyfreePrepositioncompounds:into,throughoutEndocentric&exocentricEndocentric:oneelementservesasthehead,therelationshipof“akindof”;egself-control:akindofcontrolarmchair:akindofchairExocentric