老子英文

LaoZi’sSkepticismanditsConceptualInfluenceontheDevelopmentofSongDynastyNeo-ConfucianismArthurTu(atu)AthesissubmittedinfulfillmentoftherequirementsforanindependentstudyinPhilosophyAdvisor:ProfessorJosephRamsey(jdramsey)May20072AbstractTaoismandConfucianaretwoofthemostrepresentativeschoolsinthehistoryofChinesephilosophy.TheTaoistphilosophycreatedbyLaoZiisaschoolthatemphasizestheconnectionbetweenmetaphysicalandethicalnotions.Thus,giventheelusivenatureoftheuniversaltruth,theTao,LaoZiconceivedaskepticalphilosophythatdefinesthenotionofgoodbasedontheabsenceofintentionalityandbeliefs.AsConfucianismprogressed,theConfucianscholarsadoptedmanyofLaoZi’sphilosophicalconceptionsintotheirstudieswhileretainingmanyclassicalConfucianmethodologies,thereforecreatinganewschoolofConfucianphilosophyintheSongDynasty,oftenreferredtoasthe“SongNeo-Confucianism”or“TheSchoolofReason.”ThisthesisistargetedattheinterpretationandanalysisoftheskepticalideasinLaoZi’sTaoismandtheirinfluencesonthedevelopmentoftheSongNeo-Confucianism.TheMetaphysicsandWorldViewofLaoZi’sTaoismLaoZi’s(est.600B.C–470B.C)TaoistmetaphysicsinheritsmanyviewsfromtheChinese“bookofchanges”(易經)originatedintheZhouDynasty(est.1046B.C-256B.C)(alsoknownasZhou-Yi(周易),meaningthe“Zhou’sbookofchanges”).InZhou-Yimetaphysics,everythingintheworldisoriginallyoneintegral,inseparablewhole.Astheworldevolves,theunitydividesintotwopolarextremes,theYing(陰)andtheYang(陽).TheYingrepresentspassiveness,andtheYangdenotesactiveness.TheconceptionofthepolarextremesofYing-YangisknownastheTai-Ji,meaning“thegreatpolarextremes”.1InLaoZi’sconceptionofZhou-Yimetaphysics,“Tao”(道),isperceivedastheuniversaltruthtowhichallphysicalandnon-physicalinteractionspertain.Thus,theTaoisapplicabletoalltangibleandintangibleentities.Inparticular,LaoZiperceivestheTai-JitobeanembodimentoftheTao,thustheinteractionsofmatterstoopertaintotheTai-Ji.TherelationshipbetweenatangibleentityandtheTai-Jicanbeevidencedinthelifespanofahuman:aninfantgrowsoutofweaknessandbecomesaphysicallystrongadult;thentheadultgrowoutofthephysicalprime,andbecomesagedandweak.Thus,LaoZiconcludesthatpolarextremesareinterdependent,inthesensethatamovementtowardsonepolarextremeoftenresultsinmovementsintheopposingextremeandwhenoneextremegetstoo1Tao-De-Jing(“TheBookofMorals”)Chapter40,423violent,thetensionwillcauseitsopposingextremetoprosper.2Inthisperspective,theonlyunchangingtruthisthesetofprinciplesdescribedbythebookofchanges(ie.Tai-Ji),andunderLaoZi’sconception,thisunchangingtruthiscalledtheTao.AtotalepistemologicalunderstandingorametaphysicaldescriptionoftheTao,inLaoZi’sview,isimpossible.AsLaoZistatedintheopeningchapterofhisTaoDeJing(道德經),orBookofMorals:道，可道；非常道。名，可名；非常名。Thisisinterpretedas“IfthereisanexpressionfortheTao,theexpressionisnoteternal;Ifthereanobjectisnamed,thenameisnoteternal.”3Bythis,LaoZicontendsthatnoonecanperceivetheworldinitsphysicalandmetaphysicalentirety,thusnonameordescriptionassignedtoTaoanditscreationswillbeconsistentthroughouthistory.Thisepistemologicalanti-realistconceptioncharacterizestheessenceinthestudyoftheTao,whichiswhattheChinesereferredtoas“themetaphysicalstudies”(玄學),or“thestudiesofentitiesbeyondperception.”Followingthisperspective,LaoZiismoreconcernedwiththemetaphysicalconceptionsoftangiblematters,thantheirphysicalcomposition,asLaoZidescribesinchapter11iftheTaoDeJing:三十輻共一轂，當其無，有車之用。埏埴以為器，當其無，有器之用。鑿戶牖以為室，當其無，有室之用。故有之以為利，無之以為用。Whichtranslatesinto:“Eachwheelhasthirtyspokes,whenthewheel’scenterishollowedout,itcanbeusedfortransportation;thepurposeofceramicsistocreatecontainers,onlywhenthecenterofthepotishollowedout,canthepotbeuseful;wefixwindowsforaroom,whenthecenteroftheroomishollowedout,theroombecomesdesirabletolivein;thusthenotionof‘being’benefitsutility,whereasthenotionof‘nil’definestheusage.”Workingfromthisperspective,LaoZiestablishestwoconcepts,onephysicalandthe2Tao-De-Jing(“TheBookofMorals”)Chapter16,25,30,36,52,58,573Tao-De-Jing(“TheBookofMorals”)Chapter14othermetaphysical.Physically,heassertsthatthehollowingoutofitemsiswhatcreatestheirusage.Metaphysically,heassertsthatthemattermerelygrantsutilityandthattheusageoftheproductisgrantedbysomethingintangible.(Forexample,awheelisnotusefulbecauseitismadeoutofwoodbutratherbecause‘circularobjectsareeasiertoroll.’)LaoZi’sTaoism,asitsnameadequatelydescribes,isaschoolthatgroundsitsphilosophicalnotionsintheTaoistmetaphysics.ThemetaphysicalconceptionssuchasTao’sagnosticnatureandthecontinualcycleofthegreatpolarextremesinparticularhavesignificantlycontributedtoLaoZi’sdevelopmentofaskepticphilosophyonwhichLaoZi’sethicsandpoliticalphilosophiesroot.LaoZi’sSkepticismTheskepticisminancientwesternphilosophyisfoundedonthenotionofquestioningexistingbeliefs;LaoZi’sskepticismonthecontrary,isafundamentalconceptionofskepticismthatfocusesonpreventingtheacquisitionofbeliefsderivedfromtheTaoistmetaphysics.ThemetaphysicsofTaoismdictatesthatthepolarextremesoftheTai-Jiareinterdependent,interactingandcomplementary.LaoZi’sunderstandingoftheapplicationsofthemetaphysicstothephysicalissummarizedintheTaoDeJin