欧洲文化入门第五章

EuropeanCulture：AnIntroductionDivisionFiveTheSeventeenthCenturyTheSeventeenthCenturyⅠ.GeneralIntroductionⅡ.ScienceⅢ.Philosophy,PoliticsandLiteratureinEnglandⅣ.Descartes;FrenchClassicismⅤ.ArtI.GeneralIntroductionInthe17thcenturyEuropeadvancedfromtheMiddleAgestothemoderntimes.1.Thisadvancebeganinscience,inastronogy,physics,andpuremathematics,owingtotheworkofGalileo,Kepler,NewtonandDescartes.2.theoutlookofeducatedmenwastransformed.3.thenewscienceandphilosophygaveagreatpushtothepoliticalstrugglewagesbythenewlyemergedclass,thebourgeoisie,andotherclasses.BertrandRussell伯特兰·罗素concludes,“themodernworld,sofarasmentaloutlookisconcerned,beginsintheseventeenthcentury.”Science1.FromCopernicustoKeplerNicolausCopernicus尼古拉·哥白尼wastheimmediateforerunnerofmodernscience.Work:TheRevolutionoftheHeavenlyOrbs天体运行论Heputforwardthetheorythatthesun,nottheearth,isthecentreoftheuniverse.（日心说）Howeverhisheliocentrictheorywasputforwardonlyasahypothesis.Kepler开普勒isbestknownforhisdiscoveryofthethreelawsofplanetarymotion开普勒三大行星定律:1.Eachplanetmovesinanellipse,notaperfectcircle,withthesunatonefocus;2.Eachplanetmovesmorerapidlywhennearthesunthanfartherfromit.3.Thedistanceofeachplanetfromthesunbearssdefiniterelationtothetimeperiodtheplanettooktocompletearevolutionaroundthesun.GalileoGalilei(1564-1642)Galileowasthefirsttoapplythetelescopetothestudyoftheskies.HepublishedhisdiscoveriesinthebookSidereusNuncius（theStarryMessenger）天体信息.WhathesawintheskywiththehelpofthetelescopeprovedthatPtolemy’s（托勒密）geocentricsystemsimplywouldnotworkandthatCopernicus’spowerfulhypothesishadbeenright.Galileowasthefirsttoestablishthelawofthefallingbodies.SirIsaacNewton牛顿(1642-1727)Inmathematics,Newtoninventedcalculus.微积分Inoptics光学,hediscoveredthatwhitelightiscomposedofallthecolorsofthespectrum.InPhysics,hediscoveredthelawoftheuniversalgravitation万有引力定律.Newton’sdiscoveriesweresummarizedinhisgreatbookPhilosophiaeNaturalisPrincipiaMathematica(MathematicalPrinciplesofNaturalPhilosophy《自然哲学的数学解读》GottfriedWilhelmvonLeibniz(1646-1716)LeibnizwasaGermanphilosopher,scientist,mathematician,historiananddiplomat.HeopposedtheCartesianaccountofmatter.Hebelievedthattheworldwasmadeofsimple,active,unconcernedandunextendedsubstances,eachfromitspointofviewreflectingthewholeuniverse,andallcoordinatedinpre-establishedharmony.HeandNewtoninventedindependentlytheDifferentialandintegralcalculus.Hismajorworks:HypothesisPhysicalNova（NewPhysicalHypothesis）（1671）DiscourseonMetaphysics（1686）论形而上学NewSystemofNature（1695）论大自然体系NewEssaysConcerningHumanUnderstanding（1704）论人类的理解力InventionofNewInstrumentsThemicroscopewasinventedin1590.thetelescopewasinventedin1608byaDutchman.Galileoinventedthethermometer温度计andoneofhispupilsmadethebarometer气压计.Thependulumclock摆钟appearedin1656.TwoMeritsSharedbytheGreatScientistsofthe17thCenturyFirst,theyshowedboldnessinframinghypotheses.Second,theyallhadimmensepatienceinobservation.Thecombinationofthetwomeritsbroughtaboutfundamentalchangesinman’sscientificandphilosophicalthinking.Philosophy,PoliticsandLiteratureinEnglandFrancisBacon(1561-1626)ThomasHobbes(1588-1679)JohnLocke(1632-1704)JohnMiltonandtheEnglishRevolutionFrancisBacon培根(1561-1626)FanciesBaconwasanEnglishphilosopher,essayistandstatesman.Majorworks:TheAdvancementofLearning《论学习的循序渐进》,TheNewAtlantis新亚特兰蒂斯》.TheNovumOrganism（NewMethod）andEssays18篇散文集Thewholebasisofhisphilosophywaspractical:Togivemankindmasteryovertheforcesofnaturebymeansofscientificdiscoveriesandscientificinventions.Heheldthatphilosophyshouldbekeptseparatefromtheology,notintimatelybeblendedwithitasinScholasticism.3.Induction/TheInductiveMethod归纳法n.⑴.TheInductiveMethodwasinitiatedbyFrancisBacon.⑵.Inplainerwords,inductionmeansreasoningfromparticularfactsorindividualcasestoageneralconclusion.⑶.Thisinductivemethodwasputforwardinoppositiontotheaccepteddeductivemethod演绎法,well–establishedinEuropeforalmostathousandyearsbyAristotle.-----n.reasoningfromaknownprincipletotheunknownandfromthegeneraltothespecific.Bacon’sworks:----Essays58篇散文集特点：Theyarenotedfortheirstrikingtersestyleandsharpobservationaboutlife.言简意赅观察敏锐SomefamousquotationsfromBacon:Knowledgeispower.Somebooksaretobetasted,otherstobeswallowed,andsomefewtobechewedanddigested.（OfStudies）《论学习》Readingmakesafullman,conferenceareadyman,andwritinganexactman.（Ibid）同上Booksmustfollowscience,andnotsciencebooks.读书，不可死读书。Wivesareyoungmen’smistresses,companionsformiddleage,andoldmen’snurses.ThomasHobbes霍布斯(1588-1679)ThomasHobbes,authorofLeviathan《论政治》,,oneofthemostcelebratedpoliticaltreatisesinEuropeanliterature.a.Hobbes’sMaterialistViewsHobbesarguedthatourknowledgecomesfromexperience.b.TheNaturalStateofWarHobbesbelievedthatmanisselfishbynaturec.TheLawsofNatureAccordingtoHobbes,thefundamentallawofnatureisthegeneralruleofreasonthateverymanoughttoEndeavourforpeace.d.TheTheoryoftheSocialContract社会契约论Hobbesmaintainedthatinordertogetmenoutofthemiserableconditionofwar,keeptheninawe,andtiethembyfearofpunishmenttotheperformanceoftheiragreements,andobservation