Chapter-8-Language-in-Use

ChapterEightLanguageinUseIntroduction•“Youareafool.”•“Youaresuchagenius.”•“Whatdoyoumean?”•SPEAKER’SMEANING,UTTERANCEMEANING,CONTEXTUALMEANING•Dependsmoreonthecontext•Pragmatics:Thestudyoflanguageinuse•Pragmaticsisusuallyconcernedwiththemeaningsthatsentenceshaveinparticularcontextsinwhichtheyareused.•Thereisacarcoming.•Seenoutofcontext,itisastatementthatacariscoming.•Butinaparticularcontextitmightbeawarningtoapedestriannottostepontoaroad,anexpressionofhopethatpeopleinvitedtoadinnerareatlastarriving,andsoon.SentenceMeaningUtteranceMeaningItistheabstractcontext-independententitycalledsemanticproposition.Itiscontext-dependent.Itistheproductofsentencemeaningandcontext.Therefore,itisricherthanthemeaningofthesentence.Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowspeakersusethesentencesofalanguagetoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Pragmaticsisdifferentfromtraditionalsemanticsinthatitstudiesmeaningnotinisolationbutincontext.1.Speechacttheory•Thefirstmajortheoryinthestudyoflanguageinuse.•OriginatedwiththeOxfordphilosopherJohnLangshawAustin.•HowtoDoThingswithWords(1962)《怎样用词做事》1.1Performativesandconstatives•Twotypesofsentences:performativesandconstatives•Performatives:Theutteranceofasentenceisthedoingofanaction.•它们的特点在于不只是言有所述，而且是言有所为。•Performativeverbs施为动词：Constatives(表述句):adescriptionofwhatthespeakerisdoingatthetimeofspeaking.Felicityconditions合适条件•Thereareconditionsforperformativestomeettobeappropriateorfelicitous.Asutinsuggestedthefollowingconditions:•A.(i)Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure,•(ii)Therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancemustbeappropriate.•B.Theproceduremustbeexecuted(i)correctlyand(ii)completely.•C.(i)Therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsandintentions,•(ii)mustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified.•Example:•thecaseofaship-launchingceremony;thecaseofbequeathingone’swatch;thecaseofbetting•Featuresoftypicalperformatives:•Usefirstpersonsingularsubject,simplepresenttense,indicativemood,activevoiceandperformativeverbs1.2Atheoryoftheillocutionaryact•Therearethreesensesinwhichsayingsomethingmaybeunderstoodasdoingsomething:•1.LocutionaryAct(发话行为)Whenwespeakwemoveourcocalorgansandproduceanumberofsounds,organizedinacertainwayandwithacertainmeaning.•2.IllocutionaryAct(行事行为):•ILLOCUTIONARYFORCE(行事语力)isequivalenttospeaker’smeaning,contextualmeaning,orextrameaning(言外之意).•.•3.PerlocutionaryAct(取效行为):asenseinwhichtosaysomethingcanmeantodosomethingconcernstheconsequentialeffectsofalocutionuponthehearer,whetherornottheseeffectsareintendedbythespeaker.•BysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.•Bysaying“Iwillcometomorrow”andmakingapromise,Ireassuremyfriends.2.Conversationalimplicature2.1PrinciplesofConversation:Theco-operativeprincipleCooperativeprinciple(CP):•Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.2.2Violationofthemaxims•Examplesoftheviolationsofthemaxims:•1)ViolationoftheMaximofQuantity•A:Whatareyoureading?•B:Abook.•2)ViolationoftheMaximofQuality•A:Wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?•B:I’mafraidI’mnotfeelingsowelltoday.•(saidwhenitisknowntobothAandBthat•Bisfeelingperfectlywell)•3)ViolationoftheMaximofRelevance•A:Whattimeisit?•B:Well,thepaper’salreadycome.•4)ViolationoftheMaximofManner•A:Let’sstopandgetsomethingtoeat.•B:Okay,butnotM-c-D-o-n-a-l-d-s.2.3Characteristicsofimplicature•1)Calculability可推导性•Implicaturescanbeworkedoutonthebasisofsomepreviousinformation.•Hearersworkoutimplicaturebasedonconventionalmeaning,CPanditsmaxims,context,etc.•2）Cancellability可取消性•Thepresenceofaconversationalimplicaturereliesonanumberoffactors:theconventionalmeaningofwordsused,theCP,thelinguisticandsituationalcontexts.Soifanyofthemchanges,theimplicaturewillalsochange.•3)Non-detachability不可分离性•Aconversationalimplicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentofwhatissaid,nottothelinguisticform.•Jackisanidiot.Jackisagenius.•A:Shallwegothecinematonight?•B:There’llbeanexamtomorrow.I’lltakeanexamtomorrow.Isn’tthereanexamtomorrow?••4)Non-conventionalityItiscontext-dependent.Itvarieswithcontext.•Conclusion:Conversationalimplicatureisatypeofimpliedmeaning,whichisdeducedonthebasisoftheconventionalmeaningofwordstogetherwiththecontext,undertheguidanceoftheCPanditsmaxims.3.RelevanceTheory关联理论•Relevance:CommunicationandCognition(关联性：交际与认知).•TheyarguethatallGriceanmaximsshouldbereducedtoasingleprincipleofrelevance,whichisdefinedas:•Everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.•Twokeynotionsinit:•Ostensivecommunication(明示交际）&presumptionofoptimalrelevance（最佳关联理论）•1)Ostensivecommunication:•Communicationisnotsimplyamatterofencodinganddecoding,italsoinvolvesinference.Theymaintainthatinferencehasonlytodowiththehearer.Fromthespeaker’sside,communicationshouldbeseenasanactofmakingclearone’sintentiontoexpresssomething.•A:Doyoulikerugby(橄榄球运动）?•B:IamaNewZealander.•2)Presumptionofoptimalrelevance•Threedefinitionsofrelevance:•1.Anassumptionisrelevantinacontextifandonlyifithassomecontextualeffectinthecontext.•A:Comeandhaveadrinkthisevening.•B