语言学第五章

Chapter5SemanticsSemantics----thestudyoflanguagemeaning.Meaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication.Whatismeaning?----Scholarsunderdifferentscientificbackgroundshavedifferentunderstandingsoflanguagemeaning.wewillstudymeaningfromalinguisticpointofviewSomeviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaningNamingtheory命名论(Plato柏拉图)Theconceptualistview概念论Contextualism语境论(Bloomfield布隆菲尔德)Behaviorism（行为主义）Namingtheory(Plato)Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.Limitations:1)Applicabletonounsonly.2)Therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld,e.g.ghost,dragon,unicorn,phenix…3)Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjectsbutabstractnotions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatred…TheconceptualistviewTheconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.OgdenandRichards:semantictriangleSymbol/formReferent/objectintheThought/reference思想/指称Symbol/form=linguisticelements(words,phrase)符号/形式=语言成分Referent=theobjectintheworld所指=现实世界中的物体Thought/reference=conceptOgdenandRichards:semantictriangleThesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements(wordsandphrases);Thereferentreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience;Thoughtorreferencereferstoconcept.Thesymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.ThecontextualismMeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context—elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:Situationalcontext:spatiotemporalsituationLinguisticcontext:theprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocation.Forexample,“black”inblackhair&blackcoffee,orblacksheepdiffersinmeaningBehaviorismBehavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.ThestoryofJackandJill:JillJackS_________r--------s_________RLexicalmeaningSenseandreferencearebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Sense----isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Reference----whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Note:Linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations;ontheotherhand,therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense,e.g.themorningstarandtheeveningstar,risingsuninthemorningandthesunsetatdusk.MajorsenserelationsSynonymyAntonymyPolysemyHomonymyHyponymySynonymySynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.1)Dialectalsynonyms----synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol–gasoline…2)Stylisticsynonyms----synonymsdifferinginstyle,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;…Synonymy3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning,e.g.collaborator-accomplice,…4)Collocationalsynonyms,e.g.accuse…of,charge…with,rebuke…for;…5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms,e.g.amaze,astound,…AntonymyGradableantonyms----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,…Complementaryantonyms----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,…Relationalopposites----exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,…GradableantonymsGradableantonyms----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,…ComplementaryantonymsComplementaryantonyms----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,…PolysemyPolysemy----thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,e.g.“table”maymean:ApieceoffurnitureAllthepeopleseatedatatableThefoodthatisputonatableAthinflatpieceofstone,metalwood,etc.Orderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,etc.……HomonymyHomonymy----thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophone----whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,…Homogragh----whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),…Completehomonym----whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,…Note:Differencesbetweenpolysemyandcompletehomonyms:Apolysemicwordistheresultoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningoftheword(theetymologyoftheword);whilecompletehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.HyponymyHyponymy----thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Superordinate:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.Hyponyms:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.Co-hypo