语言学-4-Syntax

Topic4Syntax句法LinguisticsGrammar&Syntax•Grammar:theknowledgeandstudyofthemorphologicalandsyntacticregularitiesofanaturallanguage.(Bussmann,2000)•AsaresultoftheinfluenceofAmericanstructurallinguistics,manylinguistsacceptadistinctionbetweenmorphologyandsyntaxwhichtogetherconstitutegrammar.4.1Syntax--Definition•Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.Syntax•Sentencescanbestudiedintwodifferentways:•Statically,wecandescribethestructuresofsentencestoillustratetherelationshipamongtheelementsofasentence;•Dynamically,wecanstudyhowsentencesaregeneratedbysyntacticrules.Whatdoessyntaxstudy?•Forexample:Manyboyslikefootball.•Syntaxstudies:•Manyboys–nounphrase–subject•likefootball–verbphrase–predicate•Many–adj.–attribute•football–n.–objectWhatdoessyntaxstudy?•Traditionally:•Word-level:partsofspeech(n.v.adj.adv.prep.pron.conj.art.num.)•Sentence-level:subject,predicate,object,attribute,adverbial,predicative,complement4.2Syntagmatic,paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations•Syntagmaticrelations(横组合关系):therelationshipsbetweenconstituentsinaconstruction.•(originallyintroducedbySaussure)•Setsofsyntagmaticallyrelatedconstituentsareoftenreferredtoasstructures.•e.g.HeisfromFrance.•Thelinearorderingofthefourwordsformsthesyntagmaticrelation.Syntagmatic,paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations•paradigmaticrelations(纵聚合关系):thesetofrelationshipsalinguisticunithaswithotherunitsinaspecificcontext.•Paradigmaticrelationsholdbetweenanitemandsimilaronesthatcanappearinthesamepositioninasequence.•e.g.HeisfromFrance.•SheAmerica•Syntagmatic,paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations•Wecangotomorrow→syntagmaticrelation•Shemaycomesoon•Iwillasknext•Youcouldsleepnow•…………•…………•…………paradigmaticrelationSyntagmatic,paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations•Hierarchicalrelations:sentencesarealsohierarchicallyordered,becausesentencesconsistofclauses,clausearemadeupofphrases,andphrases,inturn,arecomposedofwords.Sotheinnerlayeringofsentencesconstitutesitshierarchicalstructure.•ThehierarchicalstructureofsentencescanbeanalyzedbymeansofICAnalysis.ICAnalysis•e.g.HeisfromFrance•HeisfromFrance•isfromFrance•fromFranceICAnalysis•OneoftheadvantagesofICAnalysisis-----•thatitcanrevealthestructuralambiguity•e.g.naughtyboysandgirlsnaughtyboysandgirls•naughtyboysandgirlsnaughtyboysandgirls•boysandgirlsnaughtyboys•Practice:Analyzethesentence“Theyareflyingplanes.”ICAnalysis•Practice:PleaseanalyzethefollowingthreesentencesbymeansofICAnalysis:•1.LittleTomrunsveryfast.•2.Theseapplesareverysweet.•3.Hisbrotherstayedathome.•Dotheyhavethesamehierarchicalstructure?ICAnalysis•1.LittleTomrunsveryfast2.Theseapplesareverysweet•LittleTomrunsveryfastTheseapplesareverysweet•LittleTomrunsveryfastTheseapplesareverysweet•veryfastverysweet•3.Hisbrotherstayedathome•Hisbrotherstayedathome•Hisbrotherstayedathome•athomeICAnalysis•Butweknowthattheyareradicallydifferentfromeachother.•Disadvantage:ICAnalysiscannotrevealthedifferencesamongsomesentences.LabeledICAnalysis•1.LittleTomrunsveryfast/S•LittleTom/NPrunsveryfast/VP•Little/AdjTom/Nruns/Vveryfast/ADVP•very/Advfast/Adv•2.Theseapplesareverysweet/S•Theseapples/NPareverysweet/VP•These/Detapples/Nare/Vverysweet/AP•very/Advsweet/AdjLabeledICAnalysis•3.Hisbrotherstayedathome/S•Hisbrother/NPstayedathome/VP•His/Detbrother/Nstayed/Vathome/PP•at/Phome/N•Butthismethodistooredundantandtroublesome,sopeoplemodifieditandusephrasemarkers.PhraseMarkers•1.S2.S•NPVPNPVP•APNVADVPDetNVAP•AdjADVPAdvADVPAdj•AdvAdv•LittleTomrunsveryfastTheseapplesareverysweet•Labeledbracketingisalsoappliedinrepresentingthehierarchicalstructureofsentences.•[S[NP[AP[AdjLittle]][NTom]][VP[Vruns][ADVP[ADVP[Advvery]][Advfast]]]]4.3TransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG)•Thiskindofanalysisonlyanalyzesthestaticstructureofsentence,butnotdynamicstructure.•NoamChomskyclaimsthatTGGrammarstudiesbothstructures.TransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG)•AvramNoamChomsky,(themostinfluentiallinguistin20thcentury,bornonDecember7,1928)isanAmericanlinguist,philosopher,cognitivescientist,politicalactivist,author,andlecturer.•Chomskyiswellknownintheacademicandscientificcommunityasoneofthefathersofmodernlinguistics.Sincethe1960s,hehasbecomeknownmorewidelyasapoliticaldissident,ananarchist,andalibertariansocialistintellectual.•Inthe1950s,Chomskybegandevelopinghistheoryofgenerativegrammar,whichhasundergonenumerousrevisionsandhashadaprofoundinfluenceonlinguistics.Hisapproachtothestudyoflanguageemphasizesaninnatesetoflinguisticprinciplessharedbyallhumansknownasuniversalgrammar.TransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG)•第八届生成语言学国际学术研讨会•(The8thInternationalConferenceofGenerativeLinguisticsintheOldWorld)•(Aug.12-14,2010,BeingjingLanguageandCultureUniversity)•Chomsky’skeynotespeech:•Povertyofstimulus:unfinishedbusiness（刺激的匮乏——尚待努力的课题）•他认为，儿童要习得语言要凭借两个条件，一是人脑先天机制，一是后天语言环境。在后天语言环境中，儿童听到的语言材料叫做“语言刺激”或“刺激”，这种刺激是以句子的形式出现的。作为刺激的句子的数量，即儿童听到的句子的数量可能很多，但是与他后来能听懂的和说出来的句子数量相比，实际上很少，是“匮乏”的。儿童后来能听懂的句子和能说出的句子的数量实际是无限的。对于这种语言输入匮乏，语言产出无限的现象，生成语言学家进行的长期研究已取得了许多成果，但仍有许多问题需要进一步研究。Transfor