Sentence-Comprehension6-心理语言学-comprehension-&-memo

SentenceComprehension&MemoryImmediateProcessingofSentences01ComprehendingFigurativeLanguage02MemoryforSentences03CONTENTSI.ComprehendingFigurativeLanguage12TypesofFigurativeLanguageStudiesofFigurativeLanguageComprehensionPragmaticTheoryConceptualMetaphorTheoryClassInclusionTheory1TypesofFigurativeLanguage1.TypesofFigurativeLanguageFigurativelanguageislanguagethatmeansonethingliterallybutistakentomeansomethingdifferent.E.g.Georgewentthroughtheroof.(George怒火冲天)1.TypesofFigurativeLanguageIndirectspeechact:Canyoushutthedoor?1Locutionaryact:theactofsayingsomething.Literalmeaning&Intendedmeaning2Illocutionaryforce:theactionthatisperformedbysayingthesentence.Anutterancewithanillocutionaryforceisaspeechact.Whenitsliteralmeaningdoesn'tcorrespondwithitsintendedmeaning,itiscalledtheindirectspeechact.Result3Perlocutionaryeffect:theeffectoftheutteranceonalistener.Waystomakeanindirectrequest:Toquestiontheabilityoftheperson:Canyoushutthedoor?Torefertothelistener'swillingness:Willyoushutthedoor?Toindicatethereason:It'sgettingcoldinhere.Metaphor:Theapparenteaseofcomprehensionofmostmetaphorssuggestsalinkwiththeprocessesoflanguagecomprehension.Themannerinwhichwordmeaningsareconbinedtoformnovelmetaphorsseemstoextendourunderstandingofcomprehension,formetaphorsareinvariablyliterallyfalse.Threepartsofametaphor:1)tenor(本体):thesubjectforthecomparison2)vehicle(喻体):whatthesubjectiscomparedto3)ground(根据):whatthesubjectandthevehiclehaveincommonBillboardarewartsonthelandscape.tenorvehicleground:theimpliedsimilaritybetweentenorandvehicle.Whydopeopleusemetaphors?Metaphorsareoftenusedtocommunicatecontinuousexperientialinformationespeciallyinformationthatisdifficultorimpossibletoexpress.Thereisagapbetweenconceptsderivedfromexperienceandthewordsusedtodescribethatexperience.Theuseofmetaphorisanattempttofillthatgapbyextendingthemeaningofvariouswords.StudiesofFigurativeLanguageComprehensionPragmaticTheory02Linguisticcommunicationtakesplacewithinacontextofsharedassumptionsaboutcommunication(Bach&Harnish,1979;Grice,1975).Grice(1957)hasidentifiedfourconventions(whichhecallsmaxims)governingconverstations.conventions常规maxims准则Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistruthful.Thatis,donotsayanythingyoubelievetobefalse.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired,butnotmoreinformativethanisrequired.Makeyourcontributionrevelanttotheaimsoftheongoingconversation.QuantityQualityRelationManner01020304Beclear.Trytoavoidobscurity,ambiguity,wordiness,anddisorderlinessinyouruseoflanguage.Fourmaxims:Grice'spointisthattheseconventionsprovideabasisforinterpretingwhatothersmeanbecausewegenerallyassume.Example:(1)Haroldwasinanaccident.(2)Hehadbeendrinking.relationmisleadingCollectivelytheconventionsrepresentsomesharedassumptionsabouthowwecommunicatewithothers,andtheseconventionsguideourcomprehension.2.1PragmaticTheoryThepragmatictheoryholdsthatwecomprehendfigurativelanguagebyconsideringtheliteralmeaning,thenrejectingit.Searle(1975)claimsthatweusethreestages:Step1听者抽取出句子的字面意义。Step2根据情境和交际常规判断字面意义是否是说话者想要表达的意义。Step3如果不是，听者根据交际常规和直接言语行为估计出一个间接意义。Canyoushutthedoor?(relation)2.1PragmaticTheoryImplicationsLaterStudiesAB12由于字面意义总是先于比喻意义，那么对它的理解应该比比喻意义更快更容易。如果字面意义可接受的话，我们不应该理解比喻意义。Whenfigurativesentenceswereplacedinanappropriatecontext,listenersandreadersdonotneedadditionaltimetocomprehendthefiguralinterpretationsofmetaphorsorindirectspeechacts.ButGlucksberg,Gildea,andBookinhavedemonstratedthatpeoplecanapprehendthemeaningofametaphorevenwhenliteralmeaningisperfectlyacceptable.Glucksberg,Gildea,andBookin'sexperiment(1982)a.隐喻句b.比喻意义真实但字面意义错误要求：被试从字面上判断句子是否真实。结果：如果字面错误的句子可以进行比喻性诠释的话，被试要花较长时间才能确定这个句子错误。比喻性诠释的存在减慢了对字面诠释的反映时间。结论：比喻性诠释可以和字面诠释一样同时自动获得。即使比喻性诠释和任务无关，我们也不能忽略隐喻。Experiment1Experiment2GildeaandGlucksberg(1983)studiedtheeffectofcontextonthecomprehensionofmetaphor.Allhandsaremedicine.(Metaphor)Beforethis:Somearmsaresoothing.Figurativeprime(比喻性启动)Somesongsaresoothing.Literalprime(字面启动)Noprimeatall要求：被试从字面上判断句子是否真实。结果：与无启动条件相比，其他两种启动的存在都会延长被试作出真实/错误决策的时间。结论：字面的和比喻性的启动都促进了隐喻的理解。StudiesofFigurativeLanguageComprehensionConceptualMetaphorTheory022.2ConceptualMetaphorTheoryLakoffandJohnsonhaveadvancedtheconceptualmetaphortheory(概念隐喻理论)offigurativelanguage.Metaphorsarenotcreativeexpressionsbutratherinstantiationsofunderlyingconceptualmetaphors.We'vehitadeadendstreet.We'respinningourwheels.Lookhowfarwe'vecome.LOVEISAJOURNEY例示：底层概念的具体例证Example:Conceptualmetaphor:TIMEISMONEY.a.You'rewastingtime.b.Howdoyouspendyourtimethesedays?Conceptualmetaphor:ARGUMENTISWAR.a.Ishotdownhisargument.b.HeattackedeveryweakpointIhad.Accordingtotheconceptualmetaphortheory,metaphorsandotherformsoffigurativelanguagearenotnecessarilycreativeexpressions.AccordingtoGibbs,whenweencounteraverbalmetaphor,itautomaticallyactivatesthecorrespoundingconceptualmetaphor.实验证据：（1）如前所述，很多试验中被试理解比喻句和字面句所需时间没有差异。Gibbs认为隐喻的通达是快速的，因为它们是概念隐喻的具体例证。（2）对意象的研究：习语：blowyourstackflipyourlidhittheceiling非习语：blowyourtireflipyourhathitthewall要求：被试报告每一个短语所引发的视觉意象。结果：习语引发的意象在不同被试之间大同小异，但非习语引发的意象差异就相当大。结论：习语的意象一致性是由于概念隐喻的制