语言学第四章

ChapterFourFromWordtoTextwordphraseclausesentencetextTheoriginoftheword“syntax”:syntaxsyntaxtogethertoarrangearrangementThedefinitionofSYNTAX:●therulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentences●theformationofsentences（句子的组成或句子的构造）Howtoarrangewordsintophrase,clauseorsentence?----theconditionofarrangment(syntacticrelations)----theunitsofthearrangment(grammaticalConstructionandConstituents/Phrase,ClauseandSentence/SyntacticFunction)Howtoformtext?----Recursiveness----sentenceconnection/cohensionSyntacticRelations（句法关系）GrammaticalConstructionandItsConstituents（语法结构与成分）SyntacticFunction（句法功能）Category（范畴）Phrase,ClauseandSentenceRecursiveness（递归性）BeyondtheSentenceSyntacticRelationsSyntacticrelationscanbeanalyzedintothreekinds,namely,positionalrelation（位置关系）;relationofsubstitutability（可替代关系）;[,səbstə,tjutə'biləti]and,relationofco-occurrence（同现关系）PositionalRelationPOSITIONALRELATION,orWORDORDER,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.Ifthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofalanguageungrammatical/nonsensicalsequencesor,grammaticallywell-formedbutoppositemeanings’sentencesTheboykickedtheball.*Boytheballkickedthe.*Theballkickedtheboy.Theteachersawthestudents.Thestudentssawtheteacher.Other(related)namesSyntagmaticrelations横组合关系syntagmatic[,sintæg'mætik]Horizontalrelations水平关系Chainrelations.链状关系Wordorderisoneofthewaystoclassifylanguagesintheworld.InthewayofclassificationofWordOrder,therearetotallysixpossibletypesoflanguage,theyare:SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,andVOS.RelationofSubstitutabilityFirstly,theRELATIONOFSUBSTITUTABILITYreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.Secondly,itreferstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.eg:The_________smiles.manboygirlThe_________smiles.strongmantallestboyprettygirlOthernamesPARADIGMATICrelation聚合关系paradigmatic[,pærədiɡ'mætik]VERTICALrelations纵向关系CHOICErelations选择关系ASSOCIATIVErelation联想关系ADD:syntagmatic¶digmaticSyntagmaticrelation1)betweenoneitemandothersinasequence2)betweenelementswhichareallpresentIftheweatherisnice,we’llgoout.Therearesyntacticandsemanticconditionsthewordsinasyntagmaticrelationmustmeet.Iftheweatherisnice,we’llgoout.＊Ifweisnice,theweatherwillgoout.＊Iftheweatheriscry,we’llgoout.Theparadigmatic(associative)relation1)betweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure2)betweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent.The_____issmiling.Wordsinaparadigmaticrelation:1)becomparableonlyintermsofsyntax2)havethesamesyntacticfeatures3)notreplaceablewitheachothersemantically4)semanticfactorsarenottakeintoconsideration同现关系是指：不同集合的词语允许或要求另一集合或类别的词语一起组成句子或句子的某一特定成分。如：名词短语可以前置限定词和形容词，后跟动词短语。(precededby)NP(followedby)AprettygirlsmilesThetallestboysingsTheAfricanmancriesGrammaticalConstructionandItsConstituentsgrammaticalconstruction;immediateconstituents（直接成分）;endocentricandexocentricconstruction(向心结构和离心结构);coordinationandsubordination（并列与从属）RelationofCo-occurrenceCO-OCCURRENCEwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetoforclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence,e.g.:Anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjective(s)andfollowedbyaverbalphrase.Thusrelationofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations.2.Grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents2.1GrammaticalConstructionAnysyntacticstringofwordsrangingfromsentencesoverphrasalstructurestocertaincomplexlexemes.anappleateanappleMaryateanappleOnthelevelofsyntax,wedistinguishforanyconstructioninalanguageitsexternalandinternalproperties.Theexternalsyntaxofaconstructionreferstothepropertiesoftheconstructionasawhole,thatistosay,anythingspeakersknowabouttheconstructionthatisrelevanttothelargersyntacticcontextsinwhichitiswelcome.Forinstance,thedifferenttermssuchasclausaltype,phrasaltypeareassignedtothepropertiesoftheconstructionsrespectively.Theinternalsyntaxofaconstructionisreallyadescriptionoftheconstruction’s“make-up”,withthetermssuchassubject,predicate,noun,etc.ImmediateConstituentConstituentisatermusedinstructuralsentenceanalysisforeverylinguisticunit,whichisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction.Constituentscanbejoinedtogetherwithotherconstituentstoformlargerunits.外部句法特征是指整个结构所具有的特征，也就是说，说话者所知道的在个别更大的句法上下文中与此结构相关的方方面面，如：小句的类型，短语类型等。句子的内部结构是指对结构组织成分的描述，如：主语、谓语、宾语等。Immediateconstituents1)constituentsimmediatelybelowthelevelofaconstruction2)maybeasentence,orawordgroupPoorJohnranaway.PoorJohnranaway.poorJohnranawayImmediateconstituentanalysis:theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents---wordgroups(orphrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereached.ICanalysismaybecarriedoutwithbrackets.((Poor)(John))((ran)(away))Itmayalsobemoreeasilyshownwithtreediagrams.PoorJohnranawayWhenatreediagramisusedtorepresenttheconstituen