语言学期末复习资料

Chapter1：Introduction1、Linguistics（语言学）isgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.(☆toobserveandcollectlanguagefacts☆formulatessomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure☆fullyprovetheirvalidity)2、Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication(语言是一套用于人类交流的任意的口语系统).3、Generallinguistics（通用语言学）：thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.4、Phonetics（语言学），morphology（音位），syntax（形态），semantics（句法），pragmatics（语用），sociolinguistics（社会语言学），psycholinguistics（心理语言学），appliedlinguistics（应用语言学）5、Prescriptive（规定的）vs.Descriptive（描写的）Prescriptiveanddescriptiverepresenttwodifferenttypeslinguisticstudy.Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive.Ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.6、Synchronic（共时的）vs.Diachronic（历时的）Languageexistsintimeandchangesthroughtime.Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy.Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronic.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.7、Langue（语言）vs.Parole（言语）ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebySwisslinguistF.deSaussureintheearly20thcentury.LangueandparoleareFrenchwords.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystem(抽象的语言系统)sharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity（言语社区）,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.8、Competence（语言能力）vs.Performance（言语行为）ItwasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.CHOMSKYinthelate1950s.Chomsky（乔姆斯基）definescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.9、whileSaussure’sdistinctionandChomsky’sareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussure（索绪尔）tookasociological（社会逻辑学）viewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomsky（乔姆斯基）looksatlanguagefromapsychological（心理逻辑学）pointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.10、Designfeaturesoflanguage（区别性特征）：Arbitrariness（任意性thismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningandsounds,ontheotherhand,weshouldbeawarethatwhilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary;certainwordsaremotivated.Thebestexamplesaretheonomatopoeicwords拟声词andsomecompoundwords混合词）productivity（能产性），duality（二重性），displacement（移位），culturaltransmission（文化传递）11、Functionsoflanguage（语言的功能）Descriptivefunction（描写功能），expressivefunction（表达功能），socialfunction（社会功能）Jakobson（雅各布逊）：emotive（表情功能），conative（意动功能），referential（指称功能），poetic（组诗功能），phaticcommunion（寒暄功能），metalinguistic（元语言功能）Halliday（韩礼德）：ideational（概念功能），interpersonal（人际功能），textual（语篇功能）Chapter2：Phonology1、Phonetics（语音学）：isdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.Phoneticslooksatspeechsoundsfromthreedistinctbutrelatedpointsofview.First,itstudiesthesoundsfromspeaker’spointofview,thatistosay,howaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.Then,itlooksatthesoundsfromthehearer’spointofview,thatistosay,howthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.Lastly,itstudiesthewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves(声波),thephysical（物理方式）meansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.Thethreebranchesofphoneticsarelabeledarticulatoryphonetics（发音语言学）,auditoryphonetics（听觉语言学）,andacousticphonetics（声学语言学）respectively（各自的）.2、Phonology（音位学）：aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.3、Phone（音素）：isaphoneticunitorsegment.Phoneme（音位）：isaphonologicalunit,itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Allophones（音位变体）：Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.(同一音位在不同语言环境中的不同出现形式)4、Phonemiccontrast（音位对立）：Iftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,theyaresaidtoformaphonemiccontrast.Complementarydistribution（互补分布）：iftheyareallophonesofsamephoneme,thentheydonotdistinguishmeaning,butcomplementeachotherindistribution,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Minimalpair（最小对立体）：thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes,aneasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs.（whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentinthesameplaceinstrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.当两个词，除了出现在同一位置上的音外，其余的音都一样，那么这两个词就构成了一个最小的对立体）5、Organsofspeech（言语器官）：Pharyngealcavity（咽腔），oralcavity（口腔），nasalcavity（鼻腔）6、DifferencebetweenphonologyandphoneticsBothphonologyandphoneticsareconcernedwiththesameaspecoflanguage-thespeechsounds.Butwhilebotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages.,howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyposses,howtheycanbeclassified.Phonology,aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication7、Suprasegmentalfeatures（超切分特征）----stress，tone,intonationThephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegme