提高元认知的准确性：提取练习项目失败如何降低过度自信

Improvingmetacognitiveaccuracy:Howfailingtoretrievepracticeitemsreducesoverconfidence提高元认知的准确性：提取练习项目失败如何降低过度自信Authors：TylerM.Miller&LisaGeraciSource：ConsciousnessandCognitionIF：2.235abstract•Peopleoftenexhibitinaccuratemetacognitivemonitoring.Forexample,overconfidenceoccurswhenpeoplejudgethattheywillremembermoreinformationonafuturetestthentheyactuallydo.•人们常常表现出错误的元认知监测。认为在未来的测试上，他们会记住更多的信息（即比实际记住的要多），那么过度自信就出现了。Thepresentexperimentsexaminedwhetherasmallnumberofretrievalpracticeopportunitieswouldimproveparticipants’metacognitiveaccuracybyreducingoverconfidence.当前的实验研究少数提取练习机会是否会通过降低过度自信提高被试元认知的准确性。1.IntroductionThetermmetacognitionreferstoaperson’sknowledgeaboutthequalityandaccuracyoftheirowncognition.Flavell(1979)formalizedthetermandinvestigatedthephenomenafromadevelopmentalperspective.元认知指一个人知识的质量和认知本身的准确性。Flavell(1979)正式提出这个术语，并从发展的角度研究了这种现象。Studiestodayshowasimilarpatternforcollege-agedparticipants.Theypredictthattheywillearnamuchbetterscoreonagiventestthantheyactuallydo(foroneexampleseeHacker,Bol,Horgan,&Rakow,2000).Peoplearealsooverconfidentinotherabilities,includingtheirdrivingability(Knouse,Bagwell,Barkley,&Murphy,2005).Abilitytocompleteprojectsbeforedeadlines(Buehler,Griffin,&Ross,1994).Moreaccuratemetacognitionisassociatedwithbetteracademicperformance(Everson&Tobias,1998)andmemoryperformance(Thiedeetal.,2003,2005).Otherstudieshaveconfirmedthelinkbetweenaccuratemetacognitionandimprovedperformance(e.g.,Nelson,Dunlosky,Graf,&Narens,1994).准确的元认知在教育环境中尤其有利，更准确的元认知和更好的学业成绩(Everson&Tobias,1998)和记忆成绩(Thiedeetal.,2003,2005)相关。其他的研究也证实准确的元认知和成绩的提高之间有关联(e.g.,Nelson,Dunlosky,Graf,&Narens,1994)。Metacognitiveabilityishighlyresistanttochange.Thepresentstudyexaminedadifferentmethodforimprovingmetacognitiveaccuracy.Here,weexaminedwhetherpracticeretrievingasingletestitem(Experiments1and2)ormoretestitems(Experiment3)couldleadtomoreaccuratemetacognitivemonitoring.元认知能力很难被改变。当前的研究以一种不同的方法来提高元认知的准确性。作者考察了是否提取练习一个测试项目（实验1和实验2）或更多的测试项目（实验3）能导致更准确的元认知监测。1.1.TheeffectsoftestingonmetacognitionMemoryadvantagesoftakingapracticetestversusrestudyingmaterialpriortotakingafinalmemorytest(forreviewsseeDunlosky,Rawson,Marsh,Nathan,&Willingham,2013;Roediger,Putnam,&Smith,2011）Testingproducesbetterorganizationofknowledge(Zaromb&Roediger,2010)Reducesproactiveinterference(Szpunar,McDermott,&Roediger,2008).Relationshipbetweentestingandmetacognition?One,arepeopleawareofthebenefitsoftesting?Answerismixed.Two,doestestingimprovemetacognition?Havelittleeffectonmetacognitionaccuracy(Karpicke&Roediger,2008)主要原因是强调测试对随后测试成绩的影响而没有关注元认知，另一个是缺少对照组。1.2.ThepresentexperimentsThepresentexperimentsweredesignedtodirectlyexaminewhetherpracticeretrievingitemscanleadtomoreaccuratemetacognitivemonitoring.当前的实验直接考察提取练习项目是否能导致更准确的元认知监测。weexaminedwhetherretrievalpracticewithasingleitem(Experiment1)wouldimprovesubsequentperformancepredictions.实验1考察提取练习单个项目是否会提高随后的预测成绩。Wealsoexaminedtheroleoffailure(vs.success)inretrievingasinglepracticeitemonsubsequentjudgments(Experiment2)andhowmuchfailureisneededtoimprovetheaccuracyofparticipants’predictions(Experiment3).实验2考察提取单个项目失败或成功对后来判断的作用，实验3考察失败多少次才能提高被试预测的准确性。Ineachofthethreeexperiments,participantswereaskedtomakeglobalperformancepredictionsbeforeandafterengaginginretrievalpracticeornoretrievalpractice.每个实验中，在被试提取练习之前或提取练习之后或没有提取中都对总成绩进行预测。2.Experiment12.1.Methodandmaterials2.1.1.ParticipantsEightyyoungadults(53%male)betweentheagesof18and21(M=19.11,SE=.09)participatedintheexperimentinreturnforpartialcoursecredit.Participantswereundergraduatestudentswith12–16yearsofeducation(M=13.14,SE=.10).Acrossconditions,participantsdidnotdifferinaverageageoreducation(F’s1.5).2.1.2.DesignExperiment1useda2Condition(RetrievalPracticeandNoRetrievalPracticeControl)×2PerformancePrediction(OriginalandAdjusted)mixedrandomizedrepeatedmodelstudydesign.theymadetwoperformancepredictions.Thedependentvariableofinterestwastheaccuracyofeachperformanceprediction.2（条件:提取练习，非提取练习控制组）×2（成绩预测：原始的，调整的）混合实验设计。因变量为成绩预测的准确性（预测成绩-回忆成绩/40）。2.1.3.MaterialsandprocedureWeusedasubsetof40Lithuanian–EnglishpairedassociatesfromnormingdataprovidedbyGrimaldi,Pyc,andRawson(2010).ItemswerechosenbasedontheprobabilitytheywererecalledonthememorytestduringtrialoneinGrimaldietal.(2010).Theaverageprobabilityofrecallontrialonewas.23,butitemsfromtheentirerangewereselected(.04–.49probabilityofrecall).根据记忆测试中回忆的可能性选择了40个取自Grimaldietal.(2010).的立陶宛语—英语的配对联想词对，每个项目回忆正确的可能性为0.23，范围为0.04—0.49。A—Bfinalrecalltest…….predictionadjustedprediction“sesuo–___’’demographicquestionnaire2.2.Experiment1results2.2.1.Metacognitiveaccuracyanalysis两种条件在原始预测和调整预测条件下都出现了过度自信。提取练习条件没有显著的影响这些预测。重复测量方差分析结果表明预测成绩的主效应不显著，F(1,78)=1.17,MSE=0.01,p=.28,η2p=.02；条件的主效应也不显著，F(1,78)=0.39,MSE=0.02,p=.53,η2p=.01.交互作用也不显著F(1,78)=0.94,MSE=0.01,p=.34,η2p=.01。2.2.2.SupplementaryanalysisParticipantsintheRetrievalPracticeconditionrecalledtheEnglishequivalentoftheLithuaniancue‘‘sesuo’’ataratehigherthanwasexpectedbasedonthepreviousliterature(Grimaldietal.,2010).Thatis,70%oftheparticipantsrecalledtheEnglishequivalen