组织行为学03Strategy

Ch3Strategy06.08.02version2.doc06.08.02Chapter3.Strategy1ByMarylynnPlacetandKristiM.BranchTheword“strategy”hasbeeninusesinceSunTzuwrotetheArtofWarinthefourthcenturyB.C.(SunTzu1971).SunTzuwrote,ofcourse,aboutmilitarystrategy.Theliteratureoncorporatestrategy,whichemergedinthe1950sand1960s(Chandler1962;Ansoff1965;Learnedetal.1965)isvastandcontinuestogrowatanastonishingrate.Strategicmanagement–thewayinwhichafirmidentifiesitsstrategicdirectionandalignsitsoperationalprocessestoitsstrategy–hasbecomeanacademicdisciplineinitsownright,likemarketingandfinance(Mintzbergetal.1998:18;Rumeltetal.1994:15).Inessence,strategyhastodowithunderstandingwhereanorganizationwillgointhefutureandhowitwillgetthere.Mostacademiciansandcorporatemanagersbelievestrategyaffectstheoverallwelfareofthecorporation,andstrategymakingisanimportantactivity,thoughafewbelievefirmsarebetteroffwithoutastrategy(seeInkpenandChoudhury1995).Manywhobelievestrategyisimportant,however,findfaultwiththeabilityofformalizedstrategicplanningprocessestodealadequatelywiththepaceofchangefacingorganizationsintoday’senvironment.Thedisruptivechangescreatedbyrevolutionarytechnologies(includingcommunicationandinformationprocessingtechnologies),globalization,andnewbusinessmethodscanturnanorganization’scurrentadvantagesintobarriersforfuturesuccessandhaveledtonewthinkingaboutthefocusandgoalofstrategy(ChristensenandOverdorf2000;MillerandMorris1999;D’Aveni1994;BrownandEisenhardt1998;TushmanandAnderson1997).D’Aveni(1994)andDudik(2000)arguethatunderthedynamicconditionsaffectingmanyorganizationstoday,whichD’Avenicallshypercompetition,strategythatseekstosustainorganizationaladvantageneedstobereplacedwithstrategythatseekstoestablishflexibilityandtheabilitytodisrupttheadvantagesofcompetitors.Thisperspectiveplacesanemphasisoncompetitionandtheabilityoftheorganizationtochangetherulesofthegameorthegameitchoosestoplay.Consequently,thepaceofchangehasplacedgreateremphasisondevelopingstrategiesthatcansuccessfullytakeadvantageofchangingsituationsratherthanondesigningasinglestrategyforsuccess.Publicscienceorganizationsfindthemselvesinachallengingposition.Ontheonehand,theyareparticipatingatthecuttingedgeofknowledge,wherethegoalistoachievetransformingbreakthroughsintheory,materials,processes,and/ortoolsandtoutilizebreakthroughsachievedbyotherresearchorganizations.Theymustbeabletobeagileindeterminingmanagingtheircurrentscientificdirectionandfuturesciencestrategies.Ontheotherhand,theytendtobeembeddedinlarge-scaleinstitutionsthatarepermeatedbycumbersome,slow,andchange-resistantproceduresandpoliticalprocesses.Thisreviewaddressesdefinitionsofstrategy,approachestostrategydevelopment,toolstypicallyusedinstrategydevelopment,problemswithstrategicplanning,andtheroleofstrategicplanningingovernment.Itconcludesbydiscussingtheimplicationsofthisliteratureformanagingpubliclyfundedscienceprogramsandscienceorganizations.1Relatedchaptersinclude:SciencePolicy;ChangeManagement,Competencies;OrganizationalCulture;Leadership;OrganizationalCommunication;Innovation.Ch3Strategy06.08.02version2.doc206.08.02DefinitionsofStrategyManystrategicmanagementtextbooksexist,eachwithitsowndefinitionofstrategy.Forinstance,MintzbergandQuinn(1996:3)defineastrategyasthepatternorplanthatintegratesanorganization’smajorgoals,policies,andactionsequencesintoacohesivewhole.Awell-formulatedstrategyhelpstomarshalandallocateanorganization’sresourcesintoauniqueandviableposturebasedonitsrelativeinternalcompetenciesandshortcomings,anticipatedchangesintheenvironmentandcontingentmovesbyintelligentopponents(emphasisincludedintheoriginal).ThompsonandStrickland(1993:6)definestrategyas“thepatternoforganizationalmovesandmanagerialapproachesusedtoachieveorganizationalobjectivesandtopursuetheorganization’smission.”MichaelPorter(1996)states:“Theessenceofstrategyischoosingtoperformactivitiesdifferentlythanrivalsdo.”D’Aveni(1994)takestheviewthatstrategyisnotonlythecreationofadvantagebut“alsothecreativedestructionoftheopponent’sadvantage.”BrownandEisenhardt(1998:4)definestrategyas“thecreationofarelentlessflowofcompetitiveadvantagesthat,takentogetherformasemi-coherentstrategicdirection.”Intheirrecentbook,Mintzbergetal.(1998:9)contend,“[S]trategyisoneofthosewordsthatweinevitablydefineinonewayyetoftenalsouseinanother.”Mostpeoplethinkofstrategyasaplan–adirection,aguide,orcourseofactionintothefuture.Butwhenaskedtodescribeastrategyactuallypursued,peopletendtodescribeapatternorasetofbehaviorsovertime,e.g.,acompanythatperpetuallymarketsthemostexpensiveproductsissaidtopursuea“high-endstrategy.”Sostrategycanbedefinedasapatternofbehavior.Mintzbergetal.includeseveralotherwaysofdefiningstrategy:Strategyis“position”–sellingparticularproductsinparticularmarkets.Strategyis“perspective”–anorganization’sfundamentalwayofdoingthings,e.g.,the“McDonald’sway.”Strategyis“ploy”–aspecificmaneuverintendedtooutwitacompetitor.ThefiveP’s(plan,pattern,position,perspective,andploy)serveasakeyaspectofMintzbergetal.’sframeworkforanalyzingdifferentschoolsofthoughtaboutstrategy.StrategyandOrganiz