TREATIES ON OUTER SPACE AND THEIR EFFECT ON SPACE

16-SPGAir&SpaceLaw.8AirandSpaceLawyerSpring,2002*8THEU.N.TREATIESONOUTERSPACEANDTHEIREFFECTONSPACEBUSINESSFranceskaO.Schroeder[FNa1]Copyright(c)2002byAmericanBarAssociation;FranceskaO.SchroederMorethan40yearsago,space-faringnationsrecognizedthatdreamsregardingspacescience,exploration,andexploitationwerebecomingrealities.Revolutionaryadvancesintechnology,anunquenchablethirstfordiscovery,and,toalargeextent,politicalinterestsspurredunprecedentedcontemplationofandpreparationsforactivitiesinouterspace.TheseactivitiesincludednotonlytravelingtothemoonandexploringitssurfaceandresourcesbutalsopopulatingEarthorbitswithsatellitesthatcouldprovideawiderangeofcivilandmilitaryapplications.Thefeasibilityandultimatesuccessoftheseactivitiesrequiredasafeandreliablemeansofdeliveringmannedandunmannedspacecraftintospaceandensuringthat,oncethere,theycouldsurviveintheinhospitableenvironmentofouterspace.Thetaskofcarryingouttheseactivitiesfromscientificandtechnologicalperspectiveswasdaunting.Theirmanagementfromlegalandpolicyperspectivesalsowaschallenging.Inresponsetotheselegalandpolicychallenges,space-faringnationscarefullycraftedmultilateralagreementsthatwouldsetforththefundamentalprinciplesgoverningspaceactivities.InstrumentalinthiseffortwastheUnitedNationsCommitteeonthePeacefulUsesofOuterSpaceanditslegalandtechnicalsubcommittees,which,tothisday,aretheprincipalforaformultilateral,multinationaldiscussionsonissuesaffectingactivitiesinouterspace.Overthecourseof17years,space-faringandotherinterestednationsconcludedthefiveprincipalmultilateraltreatiesgoverningspaceactivities.Thesetreatiesprovidethefoundationofinternationalspacelawandtheframeworkfortheimplementationbyindividualnationsoftheirdomesticspacelaws.ItisthroughtheirdomesticspacelawsthatStatepartiestothetreatiesfulfilltheirobligationsunderinternationalspacelaw.ThefivetreatiesarecommonlyknownastheOuterSpaceTreaty,[FN1]theLiabilityConvention,[FN2]theRegistrationConvention,[FN3]theRescueandReturnAgreement,[FN4]andtheMoonAgreement.[FN5]Theyoftenarereferredtocollectivelyasthe“U.N.SpaceTreaties.”AlloftheU.N.SpaceTreatieshavegainedwideacceptanceandcomplianceexcepttheMoonAgreement,whichhasbeenratifiedbyonlynineStates(i.e.,Australia,Austria,Chile,Mexico,Morocco,theNetherlands,Pakistan,thePhilippines,andUruguay).Inshort,theOuterSpaceTreatysetsforththemostfundamentalprinciplesofspacelaw,includingthattheexplorationanduseofouterspaceshallbeforthebenefitofallmankind,[FN6]thatouterspaceisnotsubjecttonationalappropriationbyclaimofsovereignty,[FN7]andthateachStatepartyshallauthorize,supervise,andberesponsibleforthespaceactivitiesofitsnationals.[FN8]TheLiabilityConventionexplainsthata“launchingState”(definedbelow)shallbeabsolutelyliablefordamagetoorlosssufferedbythirdpartiescausedbythelaunchingState'sspaceobject.[FN9]TheRegistrationConventionrequiresalaunchingStatetonotifytheU.N.ofspaceobjectsthatitlaunchesintospacesothatsuchobjectscanbecatalogedontheU.N.'sSpaceRegistry.[FN10]TheRescueandReturnAgreementrequiresasignatoryinwhosejurisdictionanastronautorspaceobjectlandstoreturnthatastronautorspaceobjecttothecountrythatwasresponsibleforthelaunch.[FN11]TheMoonTreatyaddressesissuesregardingexplorationandexploitationofthemoon,but,asstatedearlier,itisnotwidelyrecognized.AlthoughthedraftersoftheU.N.SpaceTreatiescouldnothaveenvisionedallofthetypesofspaceactivitiesandcivil,military,andcommercialspace-basedapplicationsinwhichweengageandfromwhichwebenefittoday,theyhadtheforesighttoestablishanextremelyflexibleandadaptableregime.Forexample,therangeofcommercialspaceapplicationshasgrownconsiderablyoverthepastseveraldecades,anditcontinuestoexpand.Thenatureofentitiesthatpromoteandengageinspaceactivitiesalsohaschanged.Internationalspacelaw,asimplementedthroughdomesticspacelaw,hasnotimpededthisgrowthorinhibitedthischange.Toillustratethispoint,considertheunique,multinationalstructureoftherelativelynewlaunchservicesproviderknownasSeaLaunch,inthecontextoftheLiabilityConvention.TheSeaLaunchventure,whichwasformedin1995,isaninternationalpartnershipthatinvolvesnationalsoftheUnitedStates,Russia,Ukraine,andNorway.SeaLaunchisalimitedliabilitycorporationwithheadquartersandhomeportfacilitiesinLongBeach,California.ThecompanyisownedbyBoeingofSeattle,Washington(40percent);RSC-EnergiaofMoscow,Russia(25percent);theAnglo-NorwegianKvaernerGroupofOslo,Norway(20percent);andSDOYuzhnoye/POYuzhmashofDnepropetrovsk,Ukraine(15percent).[FN12]SeaLaunch'scustomer(i.e.,thesatelliteowner)mightbefromyetanothercountry.Moreover,thelaunchisprovidedfromalaunchplatformlocatedonthehighseas.SeaLaunch'slaunchoperationsarelicensedbytheU.S.FederalAviationAdministration,OfficeoftheAssociateAdministratorforCommercialSpaceTransportation.[FN13]*9Theterm“launchingState”isdefinedinArticleIoftheLiabilityConventionas“(i)aStatewhichlaunchesorprocuresthelaunchingofaspaceobject;[or](ii)aStatefromwhoseterritoryorfacilityaspaceobject”[FN14]islaunched.Itisabroadlydefinedtermsubjecttomultipleinterpretations.Thebreadthofinterpretationsonlyincreasesasnewspaceventures(e.g.,S