Fallacy谬误

FallacyDictosimpliciter（草率前提、简化推论）：Itdrawsaconclusionfromanover-simplisticstatementofarule.It’sanargumentbasedonanunqualifiedgeneralization.该理论认为通则不能容忍任何例外，是一个不合格的格言，太绝对的格言。It’salsoknownassweepinggeneralization.通常也被称为笼统概论。例如：吃肉会长胖。对于要长肉的人来说，喝凉水都会长肉。对于某些人来说，怎么吃也不长。所以吃肉会长胖是一个草率前提。Ittakestwoforms:1.Destroyingtheexceptionbyinsistingontherule,whichiscalledAccident.(Fallacyofaccident)偶例谬误或偶然谬误，意外谬误，是一种“通则凌驾例外”的非形式谬误，是基于某个通则的存在，而否定例外的存在或正当性。例如：超速是不对的。所以救护车不应该超速。2.DestroyingtherulebyinsistingontheexceptionwhichiscalledReverseAccident.(OrinLatin,secumdumquid.)(ConverseFallacy)逆偶例谬误或逆偶然谬误、逆意外谬误，是一种“例外凌驾通则”的非形式谬误，是基于某个例外的存在，而否定一般性的通则。例如：救护车可以超速。所以我们不应该设下时速限制。HastyGeneralization：(草率结论、仓促概括、轻率概化）Itdrawsaconclusionfromasamplethatistoosmall,thatistosay,it’smadeupoftoofewcases.Forexample:Youcan’tspeakFrench.Ican’tspeakFrench.PeteyBurchcan’tspeakFrench.NobodyattheUniversityofMinnesotacanspeakFrench.It'salogicalfallacyoffaultygeneralizationbyreachinganinductivegeneralizationbasedoninsufficientevidence.Itcommonlyinvolvesbasingabroadconclusionuponthestatisticsofasurveyofasmallgroupthatfailstosufficientlyrepresentthewholepopulation.轻率概化又称不当概化、错误概化或范例肯证等等，是一种非形式谬误，系指未充分考虑一般性的情形，只凭不充分或不具代表性的实例或样本就推论出归纳性的结论。Iaskedsixofmyfriendswhattheythoughtofthenewspendingrestraintsandtheyagreeditisagoodidea.Thenewrestraintsarethereforegenerallypopular.我去台北住了一个礼拜，有三天在下雨。所以台北大约有一半的时间在下雨。小明只有一只脚。小明是个人。所以人只有一只脚。Forexample:PostHoc(牵强附会)APostHocisafallacywiththefollowingform:AoccursbeforeB.ThereforeAisthecauseofB.Aclippedformofposthoc,ergopropterhoc.Posthoc,ergopropterhocisaLatinphrasemeaningafterthis,thereforebecauseofthis.因为两个事件紧挨着发生，便理所当然地认为第一个事件导致了后一个事件。Forexample:Let'snottakeBillonourpicnic.Everytimewetakehimoutwithus,itrains.小李在拜访她朋友的时候被猫抓伤了，两天后，她发烧了。小李认为那个伤口是导致她生病的原因。ContradictoryPremises(矛盾前提)Anargument(generallyconsideredalogicalfallacy)thatdrawsaconclusionfrominconsistentorincompatiblepremises.Essentially,apropositioniscontradictorywhenitassertsanddeniesthesamething.一个论据（通常被视为逻辑谬误），是指从不一致或不相容的前提中得出的结论，从本质上讲，当一个命题断言和否定同一件事时，它是矛盾的。即指宣称的命题自我冲突或自我推翻而缺乏说服力“自相矛盾”的故事：楚国有个卖矛和盾。他吹牛他的盾牌。“我的盾非常坚固，任何东西都不能刺穿它。”他又夸他的矛。“我的矛是如此强大，它可以穿透任何东西。”会发生什么事，他被问到如果用你的矛去刺你的盾？他无法回答。Forexample：IfGodcandoanything,canhemakeastonesoheavythathewon’tbeabletoliftit?contradictioncandoeverythingcan'tliftitAdMisericordiam(文不对题)ThistermcomesfromtheLatin,whichmeansappealtopity.“Definition:isafallacyinwhichsomeonetriestowinsupportforanargumentorideabyexploitinghisorheropponent'sfeelingsofpityorguilt.Itisaspecifickindofappealtoemotion.诉诸怜悯:是一种诉诸情感谬误，系透过挑起对方的同情与愧疚，以博取他人支持自己的想法。Forexample:Apersonapplyingforajob,whenthebossaskshimwhathisqualifications.Hesaidhehasawifeandsixchildren.Hiswifeisdisabled,thechildrenhavenothingtoeat,nowear,nobedtosleep,nocoal,Winteriscomingsoon.有个人申请工作,当老板问他所具备的条件时,他回答说他家有妻子和六个孩子.妻子完全残废了,孩子们没吃的,没穿的,睡觉没有床,生火没有煤,眼看冬天就要到了.FalseAnalogy(错误类比)ThetermfalseanalogycomesfromthephilosopherJohnStuartMill,whowasoneofthefirstindividualstoengageinadetailedexaminationofanalogicalreasoning.Definition:FalseAnalogyisanon-formalfallacy,Departmentofinappropriateuseofanalogyinappropriateinferencesandconclusionsdrawn.错误类比:是一种非形式谬误，系使用不恰当的类比推论而得出不恰当的结论。Forexample:Studentsshouldbeallowedtoseethetextbookinexam.SincedoctorsdoSurgery,theycanseeX-rays;alawyercanseethecauseofactionduringatrial.Andthecarpenterscanlookattheblueprintforbuildingahouse,whycannotthestudentsduringtheexamlooktextbook?应该允许学生考试时看课本.既然医生在做手术时可以看X光片,律师在审案时可以看案由,木匠在造房子时可以看蓝图,为什么学生在考试时不能看课本呢?HypothesisContrarytoFact(虚拟假设)Meaning:thehypothesisiscontradictorytothereality。（与事实相反的假设）事实相反的假设:不合逻辑的推理Hypothesiscontrarytofact:drawanysupportableconclusionfromahyperthesisthatisnottrue.Example:IfMadameCuriehadnothappenedtoleaveaphotographicplateinadrawerwithachunkofpitchblende,theworldtodaywouldnotknowaboutradium.(如果居里夫人不是碰巧把一张照相底片放在装有一块沥青铀矿石的抽屉里,那么世人今天就不会知道镭。)分析:Youcannotstartwithahypothesisthatisnottrueandthendrawanysupportableconclusionsfromit.不能从一个不实际的假设出发,从中得到任可站得住脚的结论。Forexample:1.IfIhadstudiedhard,Iwoulddefinitelyhavepassedthetest.2.Itaughtyoulogic.So,ifIhadn’ttaughtyoulogic,youneverwouldhavelearnedlogicatall.Poisoningthewell(井里投毒)Meaning:Thefirstpersonpoisonedthewellbeforeothersdrinkthewellwater,hehadhurthisopponentsbeforetheyexpresstheirviews.(第一个人还不等别人喝道井水,就在井下放毒.他还不等他的对手开口就已经伤害了他)Example:Thefirstonegetsupandsays,‘Myopponentisanotoriousliar.Youcan’tbelieveawordthatheisgoingtosay’…(第一个人站起来说:我的论敌是个劣迹昭彰的骗子,他所说的每一句话都不可信.”）分析:Thisisnotfair.Ifthefirstpersonsaidthesecondpersonwasaliarwhodidnotwaitingtheoneopenhismouth,whatcouldthesecondpersonsay?这不公平.如果第一个人不等第二个人开口就说他是骗子,那么第二个人还有什么可说的呢?The“argument”involvestryingtodiscreditwhatapersonmightlaterclaimbypresentingunfavorableinformation(beittrueorfalse)abouttheperson.第一个说话者试图在第二个说话者开口以前就以不利信息来抹黑对方。Forexample:1.Don'tlistentohim,he'sascoundrel.2.Youaretold,priortomeetinghim,thatyourboyfriend’sfriendisadecadentwastrel.Whenyoumeethim,everythingyouhearhimsayistainted.