英语语言学语法部分

第二部分：语法(grammar)•为什么将语法作为一个单独的分析层面？观察以下语言片段：•menlive;manlives;themenlive;themanlives;•*manlive;*menlives,*menthelive•后面一行的句子单靠语音和音位层面的分析是解释不了为什么不合法的nothinginthephoneticcompositionoftheunacceptablesequencesexcludesthemfromthelanguage;theycanbewrittendownorthographically,astheyhavejustbeenwrittendownhere,transcribedinanEnglishbroadtranscription,andeasilypronouncedbyanativespeakerofEnglish.语法的定义•Grammarisconcernedwiththedescriptionandanalysisofstretchesofutteranceorstretchesofwriting,andwiththegroupingandclassificationoftheirrecurrentelementsbyvirtueofthefunctionalplacestheyoccupyandtherelationstheycontractwithoneanother.语法，研究言语片段或文字片段的描述和分析，它还依据反复再现的成分在结构中所处的功能位置和与另一个之间的关系，来研究这些成分的汇总和分类。•Grammaristhusorganizedonthetwodimensionsalreadyreferredto,syntagmatic(组合关系）andparadigmatic（聚合关系）.Syntagmatic（组合关系）vsparadiamaticrelations（聚合关系）Syntagmaticrelationsarerelationsbetweenunitspresentinthesamesequenceorconstruction:p-i-tJohnlovesMary.Syntagmaticallyrelatedelementsformstructures.Paradigmaticrelationsarerelationsbetweenaunitandotherunitsthatcanreplaceitinagivensequence:JohnlovesMary.GeorgeBillTomParadigmaticallyrelatedunitsformsystems.形式语法的概念•传统语法中，从语义（semantic)的角度定义名词、动词。•Manylinguistshaveconcentratedonwhatiscalledformalgrammar（形式语法）,basedonobservableformsabstractedfromutterancesactuallyproducedorapprovedbynativespeakers,orwriters,ofthelanguageunderinvestigation.•在形式语法中，Thewordsperspiration,death,woman,triangle,andvirtueareclassedtogethergrammaticallyinEnglishbytheirsimilarityofformalrelationsandpositionaloccurrenceinsentences:eachoccupyaplaceaftertheandbeforeacollocationallycompatiblememberoftheclassofwordstowhichcomes,live,eats,etcbelong,andeachcanbeginasentenceofwhichthesecondorthirdwordisis.形式语法的概念•Intheprocessofestablishinggrammaticalclassificationsoneisconcernedlesswithwhattheremaybeincommoninthemeaningsofcutsinthisknifecutsthecakeandofbisectsinthislinebisectstheangle,thanwiththefactthesewordsbehaveinsentencesinthesaywaythatthewordslikecomes,lives,andeats,mentionedabove,behave;andonegroupthemintothesamegeneralclassaccordingly.语法分析的单位theunitofgrammar•语法分析的单位是：词(word)、词素(morpheme)、句子(sentence)•Theretentionofthewordasabasic,thoughnottheminimal,unitofgrammaticaldescriptionallowstheretentionoftraditionaldivisionofthegrammarofmostlanguagesintomorphology,thestudyofthegrammaticalstructureofwords,andsyntax,thestudyofthegrammaticalstructuresofsentences.语法分析的单位—如何抽象出sentence?•Ithasbeensaidthesentenceisthelargeststructurewhollydescribableingrammaticalterms,orinBloomfield’sformulation‘anindependentlinguisticformnotincludedbyvirtueofanygrammaticalconstructioninanylargerlinguisticform.’（在声调和书写上也有体现特征）•Grammarthusoperatesbetweentheupperlimitofthesentenceandthelowerlimitofthemorphemeorminimalgrammaticalunit.Betweentheselimitsstructuresgivensuchtitlesasclause,phrase,andwordmaybeabstractedandformallydelimited.Ofthese,inalllanguagesthewordappearsasaparticularlystableelements,andservesasabasicgrammaticalunitingrammar.语法分析的单位—如何抽象出word?•马林诺夫斯基甚至说，词“其实只是语言学的虚构物，只是先进的语言学分析的产物”•‘词’的确定和人们的直觉的暗合：Diverseexperiencesgoestoshowthatnativespeakershaveanintuitiveawarenessofword-likeentitiesintheirownlanguage,whetherwrittenornot,toagreaterextentthantheyhaveofothergrammaticalelementsandstructuressetupbythelinguists.•Itislikelythatwordscanbeidentifiedanddelimitedasgrammaticalunitsinalllanguages.语法分析的单位—如何抽象出word?•如果研究和比较同一语言的句子，就会看出句子中某些片段显示了它们独有的内在恒定性。这些片段可以在彼此相关的句子中的不同位置上出现（thekittensawthepigeons,thepigeonssawthekitten;twoandfivemakeseven,fiveandtwomakeseven),可以为别的片段所分隔（thekittenIboughtsawthepigeons),也可以为短暂的停顿所分隔（thepuppy,thekitten,andthechildrenwereallplaying,whenitstartedtorain)。•Buttheydonotpermitinternalrearrangementoftheirconstituentparts,northeinsertionofcomparablyandvirtuallyunlimitedfurtherstretchesofutterance.Moreover,theymanyofthesestablestretchesmaythemselvesstandalonetoconstituteacompletesentenceinanappropriatecontext.词的一种分类：可变词和不可变词VariablevsinvariablewordsVariablewordsarewordswhichhavedifferentgrammaticalforms.Invariablewordsarewordswhichdonothavedifferentgrammaticalforms.语法分析的单位—如何抽象出morpheme?•Themorphemeastheminimalgrammaticalunit.•Themostcasualcomparisonofsuchwordformsascats,dogs,andhorses,withcat,dog,andhorserevealsthedivisibilityoftheformersetintotwogrammaticallysignificantelements,cat-,dog-,horse-,and–s.•Theseelementsaregrammaticallysignificant,notsimplybecauseofa‘morethanone’meaningattachingtomostwordswithsuchapluralformative,butbecauseoftheformalpatterninginEnglishsentencesthecateats,andthecatseat,etc.•Itisfurtherapparentthatbelowthis,atthegrammaticallevel,nofurtheranalysisofthesewordsintosmallerunitsispossible.Theseminimalgrammaticalunitsarecalledmorphemes.对morpheme（语素）的分析•Morphemesmaybeclassifiedinmorethanonedimension.Firstly,morphemesareboundandfree.Afreemorphemeisonethatmayconstituteawordbyitself;aboundmorphemeisonethatmustappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme,boundorfree,inaword.•InEnglishcats,catisfree,sincecatisawordinitsownright,and–sisbound,asitisnotawordinitsownright.•Secondly,morphemesmaybedividedintorootsandaffixes