法律英语unit-5翻译

1Ineverysociety,therearemechanismsforthedeclaration,alteration,administration,andtheenforcementoftherulesbywhichpeoplelive.Notallsocieties,however,utilizeaformallegalsystem(courts,judges,lawyers,andlawenforcementagencies)tothesamedegree.Historically,lawdevelopmentandindustrialization,urbanization,andmodernizationarecloselyintertwined.Thelawandsocietyliteraturesuggeststhatthemorecomplexthesociety,themoredifferentiatedthelegalsystem.Underlyingthispropositionisthenotionthatlegaldevelopmentisconditionedbyaseriesofdemandsstemmingfromsociety’seconomic,political,educational,andreligiousinstitutions.Basedonthecomplexityandmagnitudeoftheinterplayamongtheinstitutionsandbetweentheseinstitutionsandthelaw,severaltypesoflegalsystemsmaybeidentifiedinthecourseofsocietaldevelopment.1在每一个社会,有机制的宣言,变更、管理和人们生活的规则的执行。然而,并不是所有的社会利用正式的法律制度(法院、法官、律师、和执法机构)到相同的程度。从历史上看,法律发展和工业化、城市化和现代化紧密地交织在一起。法律与社会文献表明,社会越复杂,越有区别的法律制度。底层这一命题的概念法律发展受制于一系列需求源于社会的经济、政治、教育和宗教机构。基于之间的相互作用的复杂性和规模之间的机构,这些机构和法律,几种类型的法律制度可能会发现在社会发展的过程中。PrimitiveLegalSystems基本法律制度2Primitivelegalsystemsaretypicallyfoundinhuntingandgatheringandsimpleagrariansocieties.Thelawsarenotwrittenorcodified;theyarepermeatedbycustoms,tradition,religiousdogmas,andvalues.Primitivelawsoftencoexistwithancientnorms,andarealsocomparativelyundifferentiated.Thereis,however,somedistinctionbetweensubstantivelawsandprocedurallaws.Subsequentdifferentiationoftypesatlaterstagesoflegalevolutioncanbecompassedunderthesetwotypesoflaw.2原始法律体系通常是在狩猎和采集和简单的农业社会。法律不写或编纂;他们被海关渗透,传统,宗教教条,和价值观。原始的法律常常与古代准则共存,也比较无差异。然而,一些实体的法律和程序的法律之间的区别。随后分化类型的法律进化的后期可以围绕这两种类型的法律规定。3Thefunctionsoflawinprimitivesocietiesareessentiallythesameasthoseinmoreadvancedsocieties.Lawspreserveimportantculturalelements.Theycoordinateinteraction,settledisputes,checkdeviance,andregularizeexchanges.Lawsalsolegitimizeexistinginequalities.3法律的功能在原始社会在本质上是相同的在更高级的社会。法律保护的重要的文化元素。他们协调互动,解决争端,检查异常,调整交流。法律也合法化现有的不平等。4Inprimitivesocieties,therearenowell-developedpoliticalsubsystems,andthepolityiscomposedofkinleaders,councilofeldersorchiefs,andvariousreligiousleaders.Legislatorsdonotformallyexistinprimitivesocieties.Insuchsocieties,judgesandpoliticalleaders(elders,andthelike)areoneandthesame.Becausetherearenowrittenlaws,thechief-legislatorcanstrike,rescind,orchangeoldlawsmoreeasilythanthemodernlegislator;andifsuchactionappearsreasonable,littleresistanceisoffered.Obviously,gettingoldlawsoffthebookinmodernsocietiesisrarelythateasy.4在原始社会中,没有良好的政治子系统,和亲属的政体是由领导人,长老理事会或首领,和各种宗教领袖。立法者不正式存在于原始社会。在这样的社会中,法官和政治领导人(长老等)是相同的。因为没有书面的法律,chief-legislator可以罢工,撤销,或改变旧的法律比现代立法者更容易;如果这些行动似乎合理,提供一点抵抗力都没有。显然,老了在现代社会法律的书很少,容易。TransitionalLegalSystems过渡的法律体系5Transitionallegalsystemsarecharacteristicofadvancedagrarianandearlyindustrialsocietieswheretheeconomic,educational,andpoliticalsubsystemsareincreasinglydifferentiatedfromkinshiprelationships.Asaresultofincreasesinintegrativeproblems,thelegalsubsystembecomesmorecomplexandextensive,asevidencedbyaclear-cutdifferentiationinbasiclegalelements------laws,courts,enforcementagencies,andlegislativestructures.Inthetransitionalstage,mostofthefeaturesofthemodernlegalsystemarepresent,butnottothesamedegree.Lawbecomesmoredifferentiatedfromtradition,customsandreligiousdogma.Exceptforprocedurallawsandsubstantivelaws,thereisadistinctionbetweenpublicandprivatelaw,andcriminallawalsobecomesdistinguishablefromtorts.Thereis,similarly,aclearerdifferentiationbetweenproceduralandsubstantivelaws.Asthetypesoflawincrease,lawsbecomesystemsofrules.5过渡法律体系是先进的农业和工业社会初期特征的经济、教育和政治子系统从亲属关系越来越分化。由于增加的综合问题,法律子系统变得更加复杂和广泛,通过明确的分化在基本法律元素------法律、法院、执法机构和立法结构。在过渡阶段,大多数现代法律体系存在的特点,而不是相同的程度。法律变得更加分化的传统,习俗和宗教教条。除了程序性法律和实质性的法律,公共和私人法律,是有区别的,刑法也成为侵权行为区分开来。同样,更清晰的区分程序和实质性的法律。随着法律的类型增加,法律成为规则的系统。6Theincreaseddifferentiationoflawsisreflectedintheincreasedcomplexityofthecourts.Withthedevelopmentofclearlydifferentiated,stableandautonomouscourts,legaldevelopmentaccelerates.Initially,courtsarelocalizedandcharacterizedbycommon-lawdecisions.Intime,theirconflictingandoverlappingrulesprovideanimpetusfortheunificationofalegalsystem,eventuallyleadingtoamorecodifiedsystemoflaws.6法律分化的增加反映在法庭的增加了复杂性。的发展明显分化,稳定和自治法院、法律发展加速。最初,法院是本地化和特点是普通法的决定。随着时间的推移,他们的冲突和重叠规则提供了一个动力的统一的法律体系,最终导致更多的编纂的法律体系。ModernLegalSystems现代法律体系7Inmodernlegalsystems,wefindallthestructuralfeaturesoftransitionalsystemspresent,butingreaterandmoreelaboratearrangements.7在现代法律体系中,我们发现所有在场的过渡系统的结构特点,但在更大的和更复杂的安排。8Inamodern,heterogeneous,andcomplexsociety,formalnormsandsanctionsarenecessarytocontrolbehaviorsothatsocietycancontinuetofunctioninanorderlyandpredictablefashion.Thepresenceoflawandlegalsystemisessentialtothemaintenanceofsocialorder.Inmodernlegalsystems,thereareclearhierarchiesoflaws,rangingfromconstitutionalcodestoregionalandlocalcodes.Courtshaveanimportantroleinmediatingandmitigatingconflict,disputes,anddeviance.Lawsareenforcedandcourtdecisionsarecarriedoutbyclearlydifferentiatedandorganizedpoliceforces,whichareorganizedatthelocalstateandfederallevels.Atthesametime,legislativebodiesatvariouslevelsprolife