语用学课件-Pragmatics-3

ConversationalImplicatureLecture3Wordsarelikeleaves;andwheretheymostabound,Muchfruitofsensebeneathisrarelyfound.(AlexanderPope,AnEssayonCriticism)TheoriesofmeaningThereferentialtheoryclaimsthateverysentenceisacombinationofwordsandeachwordstandsforanobject.Themeaningofthewordistheobjectthewordrefersto.ThekingofFranceisbald.ThemorningstaristheEveningstar.Thedistinctionbetweenasentenceandtheuseofasentence“wecannottalkofthesentencebeingtrueorfalse,butonlyofitsbeingusedtomakeatrueorfalseassertion,or(ifthisispreferred)toexpressatrueorfalseproposition.”(Strawson,1950)Wariswar.Meaninginuse,contextandintentionStevenson(1963)proposestwokindsofmeaning:Descriptive/conventionalmeaningnotcarrytheindividualwillandattitudePsychological/pragmaticmeaningdependontheintentionandfeelingofthespeakerandhearer.Grice’stheoryofmeaningNaturalmeaning(meaning-n)Withnoagentorintention,themeaningisperceivednaturally.XmeansthatPentailsP.Thoseblackcloudsmeanrain.Thosespotsmeanmeasles.Non-naturalmeaning(meaning-nn)Intentionisinvolved.XmeansP,butitdoesn’tnecessarilyentailP.Theringsonthebellmeanthebusisfull.Hiscoughmeansthatheisseriouslyill.Non-naturalmeaning(meaning-nn)AmeantsomethingbyX=AintendedtheutteranceofXtoproducesomeeffectinanaudiencebymeansoftherecognitionofthisintention.(Grice,in‘Meaning’,1957)Smeant-nnbyutteringUifandonlyif:(i)SintendedUtocausesomeeffectzinrecipientH(ii)Sintended(i)tobeachievedsimplybyHrecognizingthatintention(i)Whatiscommunication?IncidentaltransferofinformationCommunicationproperinvolvesintentionandagency.Onlythoseinferencesthatareopenlyintendedtobeconveyedcanproperlybesaidtohavebeencommunicated.KindsofcommunicationalcontentMeant-nnsaidimplicatedconventionallyNon-conventionallyconversationallyparticularlyNon-conversationallygenerallySaidvs.implicated“Withsomeknowledgeofacertainlanguage,thespeakerproducesastandardgrammaticalsentenceandthissentence,withoutanyconsiderationofcircumstantialfactors,canbeunderstoodproperlyaccordingtoitsconventionalmeaning.”(truth-conditional)Conventionalvs.non-conventionalSimplyattachedbyconventiontoparticularlexicalitemsorexpressions.(but,therefore,even,yet)Sheispoorandhonest.Sheispoorbuthonest.(propositionalcontent,implication)(context-free)Non-conversationalvs.conversationalApoorlydescribedclasswhichGricethoughtasderivablefromthepossible“aesthetic,social,ormoral”maximswhichheindicatedexistbutdidnotargueforinhisworkCP-involvedimplicature(CP)A:Whereismyfish?B:Oh,thecatlookshappy.Generalvs.particular(maximobservation)ConversationalimplicaturePutforwardbyGriceintheWilliamJamesLecturesatHarvardUniversityin1967Aninferencefromthesemanticcontentdependingoncontext,speaker’sintention,hearer’sattitudeandthemutualassumption.TheCP-directedimplicaturesAnotherclassictopicinPragmaticsbecauseitstudiestheunstablecontext-specificpragmaticoverlayofthatstablesemanticcore.TheimportanceofCICIstandsasaparadigmaticexampleofthenatureandpowerofpragmaticexplanationoflinguisticphenomena.Itprovidessomeexplicitaccountofhowitispossibletomeanmorethanwhatisactuallysaid.A:Canyoutellmethetime?B:Well,themilkmanhasjustcome.Itseemslikelytosimplifythestructureandthecontentofsemanticdescriptions.Thelonerangerjumpedonhishorseandrodeintothesunset.Thelonerangerrodeintothesunsetandjumpedonhishorse.Theflagiswhite.Theflagiswhite,redandblue.(ambiguous?)Thetheoryhasaverygeneralexplanatorypower:afewbasicprincipleprovideexplanationsforalargearrayofapparentlyunrelatedfacts.Metaphors,tautologies,somelogicaldilemma,nall—notallCooperativePrincipleCP---Makeyourcontributionsuchasitisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.N.B.Phrasedasaprescriptivecommand,theprincipleisintendedasadescriptionofhowpeoplenormallybehaveinconversation(differentfromRhetoric).4maximsThemaximofquantityMakeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired;Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.ThemaximofqualityDonotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.ThemaximofrelationMakeyourcontributionrelevant.ThemaximofmannerBeperspicuous,andspecifically:avoidobscurityavoidambiguitybebriefbeorderly.TheHorniansystemObservationvs.violationObservation:Observationofboththegeneralprincipleanditsmaxims(Whatdayistoday?Thursday.)Observationofthegeneralprincipleonly(adherencetotheprincipleatadeeperlevel)Violations:ViolationofCPasawhole(noCI)withoutthehearer’sawareness(misleading,e.g.lie)attheawarenessofthehearer(“nocomments.”notmisleading)Violationofcertainmaximsonly(CI)reluctantviolationofonemaximinordertoobserveanother(Atwhattimearetheygoingtotheairport?Sometimethismorning.)deliberateviolation(Mrs.Smithisjustanoldwindbag.Whatalovelyday!)ObservationandviolationObservationofboththegeneralprincipleanditsmaxims+SCIObservationofthegeneralprincipleonly+NSCIViolationofcertainmaximsonlyViolationofCPasawhole+nomeaningfulCIStandardCI(Levinson,1983)TheinferencethatarisefromobservingmaximsJohn