语言学导论第6章Pragmatics

MeaningincontextPragmaticsBackgroundTothispointwehavelookedatlinguisticforms.Particulartopicshaveincludedthestructureofsound,words,clauses,etc.,andhowmeaningsarecomposed.Howtheselinguisticobjectsareused?Pragmatics:languageuseincontextRoughly:thestudyofhowtodothingswithwordsGenerally:thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunicationPragmaticsvs.SemanticsDistinction:whetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsideredContext:theknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearerE.g.,culturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.)therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer…Semantics:(nocontext)thestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentencePragmatics:(incontext)thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeakertheliteralmeaningsentencemeaning句子意义theintendedmeaningutterancemeaning会话意义E.g.,“Thebagisheavy.”Pragmaticsvs.Semantics“Thebagisheavy”sentencemeaning:abagbeingheavyutterancemeaning:anindirect,politerequestaskingthehearertohelphimcarrythebagdecliningsomeone’srequestforhelp…utterancemeaning:basedonthesentencemeaning;realizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinacontext;identicalwiththepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersthesentenceTopicsstudiedinpragmaticsSpeechactsPrincipleofconversationCrossculturalpragmaticfailure…Speechacts言语行为Peopleuselanguagetoaccomplishdifferenttypesofacts.Theseactsarecalledspeechacts.“Whatwedowithlanguage”Speechacttheories:Austin’smodelofspeechactsSearle’sclassificationofspeechactsIndirectspeechactsAustin’smodelofspeechactsEarlymodel:Constatives(叙述句)statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable;Performatives(施为句)sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.E.g.,“Ido”“InamethisshipElizabeth.”“Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.”“Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.”Austin’smodelofspeechactsNewmodel:AspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeakingE.g.,“Itiscoldinhere.”Locutionaryact(言内行为)anactofsayingsomethingIllocutionaryact(言外行为)anactperformedinsayingsomethingPerlocutionaryact(言后行为)anactperformedasaresultofsayingsomething★Austin’smodelofspeechactsEx.Analyzetheillocutionaryactsofthefollowingconversationbetweenacouple--(thetelephonerings)--H:That’thephone.(1)--W:I’minthebathroom.(2)--H:Okay.(3)Searle’sclassificationofspeechactsFivecategories(illocutionarypoint言外之意)Assertives/representatives(陈述)Directives(指令)Commissives(承诺)Declarations(宣布)Expressives(表达)Assertives/representativesStatingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue,E.g.,I’mcertainIhaveneverseenthemanbefore.Theearthisaglobe.DirectivesTryingtogetthehearertodosomething,E.g.,Iorderyoutoleaverightnow.You’dbettergototheclinic.CommissivesCommittingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction,E.g.,Ipromisetocome.Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.DeclarationsBringingaboutanimmediatechangeintheexistingstateoraffairs,E.g.,InamethisshipElizabeth.Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.ExpressivesExpressingthespeaker’spsychologicalstateaboutsomething,E.g.,It’sreallykindofyoutohavethoughtofme.Iapologizeforthesufferingsthatthewarhascausedtoyourpeople.Searle’sclassificationofspeechactsEx.Ithinkthefilmismoving.Openthewindow,please.Isolemnlyswearthathehadgotit.Iwilltakegoodcareofyourchild.Inowappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.Yourmoneyoryourlife!Youarefired.I’msorryforbeinglate.IndirectspeechactsDirectlanguagevs.IndirectlanguageTraditionally:Directlanguage:FunctionSentencestateafactdeclarativeseekinformationinterrogativedirectothers’actionsimperativeIndirectlanguage:themismatchbetweenthefunctionandsentenceformsE.g.,“Thekitchenisinanawfulmess.”“JohngotanAonthetest.”“DidJohngetanAonthetest?”“GetanAonthetest!”IndirectspeechactsSearle’sindirectspeechact:Whenaspeakerisusingindirectlanguage,heisperformingtwospeechactssimultaneously:theprimaryspeechactthesecondaryspeechactPrimary:thespeaker’sgoalofcommunicationSecondary:themeansbywhichheachieveshisgoalE.g.,Lookatthewordsonthefollowingboards.IndirectspeechactsPrincipleofconversation会话原则Toconversewitheachother,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate.theCooperativePrinciple(CP)合作原则(PaulGrice1975)Fourmaxims准则:ThemaximofqualityThemaximofquantityThemaximofrelationThemaximofmannerBlatantviolationofthemaximsconversationalimplicature会话含义Principleofconversation会话原则E.g.,-A:wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?-B:I’mafraidI’mnotfeelingsowelltonight.Atapartyayoungmanintroduceshimselfbysaying“I’mRobertSampsonfromLeeds,28,unmarried…”“We’realreadyworking25hoursaday,eightdaysaweek”-A:Thehostessisanawfulbore.-B:Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren’tthey?-A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?-B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.Cross-culturalpragmaticfailureBreakdownssometimesoccurinthecourseofcommunication.E.g.1,(Betweenapassengerandthebusdriver)P:CanyoutellmewhenwegettoBirmingham,please?D:It’sabigplace.Youwon’tmissit.DifferentinterpretationofthelinguisticformCross-culturalpragmaticfailureBreakdownssometimesoccurinthecourseofcommunication.E.g.2,(BetweenaChineselearnerofEnglishandProfessorHiggi