第六讲 观察与测量传播变量

观察与测量传播变量胡牧师兄•Survey(调查).•Experiment(实验).•Ethnography(民族志)•Textualanalysis(文本分析)观察与测量•Conceptualdefinition:describeswhataconceptmeansbyrelatingittootherabstractconcepts.•Operationaldefinition:describesaconceptintermsofitsobservableandmeasurablecharacteristicsorbehaviors,byspecifyinghowtheconceptcanbeobservedinactualpractice.获知人类传播行为的方法•Selfreports:尽管会有主观(memory,unwillingness,socialdesirabilitybias)或客观方面造成的不准确，仍被广泛使用。•Otherreports：有时更准确，有时是必需。•Observationofbehavior：directobservation(ofbehavior)vs.indirectobservation(ofartifactsofbehavior).填写的问卷和访谈的问卷•填写的问卷的优点成本低（人力财力）；可达大范围受众；不同的研究者均可实施；匿名；可得到不愿谈话的人的数据；数据准确（因为有纪录）；电子问卷方便快捷。填写的问卷和访谈的问卷•访谈的优点电话方便；可以回答被测试者的问题；可观察到被测试者答题时的语言和非语言信息；深度较问卷强；和谐的关系能引发更多的信息。定量测量和定性测量•定量测量(quantitativemeasurements):employmeaningfulnumericalindicatorstoascertaintherelativeamountofsomething.•定性测量(qualitativemeasurements):employsymbolstoindicatethemeanings(notrelativeamounts)peoplehaveofsomething.•例子。杂志的成功程度：“发行量”和“读者的评论”。问卷的起源•Politicalpolls(Gallup,AmericanInstituteforPublicOpinionResearch).•Marketresearch(Advertisingreadershipsurveys,Editorialcontentreadershipsurveys,broadcastaudiencesurveys).•Evaluationresearch.Cross-sectionalsurvey•Cross-sectional:describesthecharacteristicsofasampleatonepointintime.•Itistime-bound.•Itdoesn’tcapturetheenduringorchangingnatureofaresearchpopulation.Longitudinalsurvey•Bygatheringdatafromrespondentsatseveralpointsintime,researcherscanassesstheenduringbeliefs,attitudes,andbehaviorsofapopulation,aswellastheimpactofusualoruniqueenvironmentaleventsonapopulation.Longitudinalsurveytypes•Trendstudy:measurespeople’sbeliefs,attitudes,and/orbehaviorsattwoormorepointsintimetoidentifychangesortrends.Longitudinalsurveytypes•Cohortstudy:responsesfromspecificsubgroupsofapopulation,usuallydividedonthebasisofage,areidentifiedandcomparedovertime.Cohorteffects:anyeffectsduetomembershipinacertainsubgroup.Generationeffects:anyeffectsduetobeingamemberofthesamegenerationoragegroup.Periodeffects:anyeffectsduetotheinfluenceofaparticulareraortimeperiod.Longitudinalsurveytypes•Panelstudy(prospectivestudy):examinesresponsesfromthesamepeopleovertimetolearnhowtheirbeliefs,attitudes,and/orbehaviorschange.实验•目的是建立因果关系，因为横断面式(cross-sectionalstudy)的问卷研究是不能确定变量间因果关系的。•建立两变量间因果关系的三个条件：时间。两者之间有必然的逻辑关系。因变量的变化确实由自变量的变化引起。实验的种类•完全实验(Fullexperiment)：一定有两个或多个组，随机分组（目的是使被研究者没有组间差异），完全控制实验的自变量。•准实验(Quasi-experiment)：既可能一个组也可能为一个以上组，不随机分组（但观测并纪录被研究者组间差异），观测或控制实验的自变量。•预实验(Preexperiment)：既可能一个组也可能为一个以上组，不随机分组，观测或控制实验的自变量。预实验•Onegroupposttest-onlydesign实验材料(Treatment)——测试(Test)•Onegrouppretest-postetestdesign实验前测——实验材料——实验后测•Posttest-onlynonequivalentgroupsdesign.组一：实验材料——实验后测组二：无实验材料——实验后测准实验•Single-groupinterruptedtimeseriesdesign.•实验前测第一次——实验前测第二次——实验前测第三次——实验材料——实验后测第一次——实验后测第二次——实验后测第三次准实验•Pretest-posttestquasi-equivalentgroupsdesign组一：实验前测——实验材料——实验后测组二：实验前测——无实验材料——实验后测准实验•Interruptedtimeseriesquasi-equivalentgroupsdesign组一：实验前测第一次——实验前测第二次——实验前测第三次——实验材料——实验后测第一次——实验后测第二次——实验后测第三次组二：实验前测第一次——实验前测第二次——实验前测第三次——无实验材料——实验后测第一次——实验后测第二次——实验后测第三次完全实验•Pretest-posttestequivalentgroupsdesign随机分组后，组一：实验前测——实验材料——实验后测组二：实验前测——无实验材料——实验后测完全实验•Posttest-onlyequivalentgroupsdesign随机分组后，组一：实验材料——测试组二：无实验材料——测试完全实验•Solomonfour-groupdesign随机分组后，组一：实验前测——实验材料——实验后测组二：实验前测——无实验材料——实验后测组三：实验材料——测试组四：无实验材料——测试Ethnography(民族志)•属于Naturalisticinquiry(howpeoplebehavewhentheyareabsorbedingenuinelifeexperiencesinnaturalsettings).•Assumptions:a)Naturalism:phenomenashouldbestudiedintheirnaturalcontext.b)Phenomenology:theobjectofinterestshouldbeexaminedwithoutanypreconceivednotionsoraprioriexpectations.c)Interpretivenature:Theresearcher,whiletryingtoseethesituationfromthepointofviewofthosewhoarebeingstudied,cannotescapefromprovidinghisorherowninterpretationsofthesituation.(Tobecontinued)•(continued)Ratherthanignoringordevaluingresearchers’interpretationsofparticipants’behavior,descriptionsandinterpretationsmadebytheparticipantsandresearchersarewoventogethertoproduce“well-grounded,richdescriptionsandexplanationsofprocessesinidentifiablelocalcontexts.”Ethnography•Firstemployedbyanthropologiststodescribeculturesdifferentthantheirown.•“Theuseofdirectobservationandextendedfiledresearchtoproduceathick,naturalisticdescriptionofapeopleandtheircultures.Ethnographyseekstouncoverthesymbolsandcategoriesmembersofthegivencultureusetointerprettheirworldandethnographythuspreservestheintegrityandinherentpropertiesofculturalphenomena”(Gephart,1988).Theflowofnaturalisticstudy•Naturalsetting:insituembodiedpractice.•Humaninstrument:It’soneofgettingdata,itseemstome,bysubjectingyourself,yourownbodyandyourownpersonality,andyourownsocialsituation,tothesetofcontingenciesthatplayuponasetofindividuals…sothatyouareclosetothemwhiletheyarerespondingtowhatlifedoestothem(Goffman,1989).•Tacitknowledge(intuitive,felt)andpropositionalknowledge(expressibleinlanguageform).•Qualitativemethods.Anumbrellatermcoveringanarrayofinterpretivetechniquewhichseektodescribe,decode,translate,andotherwisecometotermswiththemeaning,notthefrequency,ofcertainmoreorlessnaturallyo