chapter-4-语言学概论

Chapter4PresuppositionandEntailmentPresuppositionandentailmentareusedtodescribetwodifferentaspectsoftheinformationwhichisnotgenerallystatedbutspeakersassumetobeknownbytheirlisteners.Presupposition前提：Somethingthatthespeakerassumestobethecasetomakinganutterance.Speakers,notsentences,havepresuppostions.Mary’sbrotherisabachelaor.Maryexists.Maryhasabrother.Therequirementsforpresuppositionshouldbe:1)Ifpistrue,thenqistrue.2)Ifpisnottrue,thenqisstilltrue.3)Ifqisnottrue,thenpisneithertruenorfalse.Keplerdiedinmisery.(p)Keplerexisted.(q)pqKeplerdidn’tdieinmisery.(p)Keplerexisted.(q)pqConstanancyundernegation:Thepresuppositionofastatementwillremainconstantorstilltruewhenthatstatementisnegated.negationtest否定测试法Mary’sdogiscute.(p)Maryhasadog.(q)pqMary’sdogisnotcute.(NOTp)Maryhasadog.(q)NOTpqEntaiment蕴涵：Somethingthatlogicallyfollowsfromwhatisassertedintheutterance.Sentences,notspeakers,haveentailments.Mary’sbrotherisabachelaor.‖–Mary’sbrotherisaman.Mary’sbrotherisunmarried.Therequirementsforentailmentshouldbe:1)Ifpistrue,thenqistrue.2)Ifpisnottrue,thenqiseithertrueorfalse.3)Ifqisfalse,thenpisfalse.(p)Johnmanagedtostopthecar.(q)Johnstoppedthecar.(r)Johntriedtostopthecar.p‖–qprThisisarose.(p)Thisisaflower.(q)p‖–qBackgroundentailments:Anylogicalconsequenceofanutterance.OrderedentailmentSomethingchasedthreesquirrels.(q)Roverdidsomethingtothreesquirrels.(r)Roverchasedthreeofsomething.(s)Somethinghappened.(t)Roverchasedthreesquirrels.(p)Foregroundentailment:前景蕴涵Themainlogicalconsequenceofanutterance,whichismoreimportantforinterpretingintendedmeaningthananyothers.RoverchasedTHREEsquirrels.ROVERchasedthreesquirrels.Inspokenlanguage,stressallowsthespeakertomarkforthelistenerwhatthefocusofthemessageis,andwhatisbeingassumed.theshiftoffocus焦点转移Intermsofstructure,anitcleftconstructioninEnglishallowsthespeakertomarkforthelistenerwhatthefocusofthemessageis,andwhatisbeingassumed.ItwasROVERthatchasedthreesquirrels.ItwasTHREESQUIRRELSthatRoverchased.Itwasn’tME/Iwhotookyourmoney．Potentialpresuppostion:Anassumptiontypicallyassociatedwithuseofalinguisticform.TypesofpotentialpresuppostiontypeexamplepresuppositionExistentialFactiveNon-factiveLexicalStructuralcounterfactualtheXIregretleaving.Hepretendedhappy.Hemanagedtoescape.Whendidshedie?IfIweren’till,Xexists.Ileft.Hewasn’thappy.Hetriedtoescape.Shedies.Iamill.Existentialpresuppostion:Anassumptionthatsomeoneorsomething,identifiedbyuseofanounphrase,doesexist.◆TheKingofFranceisbald.ThereisaKingofFrance.◆Thishousewasonceownedbyarichmerchant.Thereonceexistedahouse.Factivepresuppostion:Theassumptionthatinformationstatedaftercertainwordsistrue.◆Shedidn’trealizehewasill.Hewasill.◆I’msorrythatyourdogdies.Yourdogdied.Non-factivepresupposition:Theassumptionthatcertaininformation,aspresented,isnottrue.◆IdreamedthatIwasrich.Iwasnotrich.◆WeimaginedwewereinHawaii.WewerenotinHawaii.Counterfactualpresupposition:Theassumptionthatcertaininformationistheoppositeoftrue.◆IfBeethovenwerestillalive,hewouldbesurprisedtohearthisrenditionofhis“OdetoJoy”.Beethovenisnotalive.◆IfonlyIcouldfly.Icannotfly.◆IwishIhadpassedtheexamination.Ididn’tpasstheexamination.Lexicalpresupposition:Theassumptionthat,inusingoneword,thespeakercanactasifanothermeaningwillbeunderstood.◆Hestoppedsmoking.Heusedtosmoke.◆Hecameagain.Hecamebefore.◆Johnwenttoschoolinspiteofrainlastnight.Itwasraininglastnight.Structuralpresupposition:Theassumptionthatpartofastructurecontainsinformationbeingtreatedasalreadyknown.◆Wheredidyoubuythebook?Youboughtabook.◆ItwasMarythatatethecake.Someoneatethecake.◆CarolisabetterpainterthanMike.Mikeisapainter.Presuppositiontrigger前提触发语:Apresuppositiontriggerisaconstructionoritemthatsignalstheexistenceofapresuppositioninanutterance.13kindsofpresuppositiontriggerslistedbyLevinson1.Definitedescription确定性描述◆John’swifeisateacher.Johnhasawife.◆Theteamofexplorersgotlostinthejungle.Therewasateamofexplorers.2.Factiveverbs叙实动词◆Johnrealizedthathehadmadeamistake.Johnmadeamistake.◆Heispleasedthathissonwontherace.Hissonwontherace.◆Itisdisappointingthatonlyhalfofthestudentspassedthetest.Onlyhalfofthestudentspassedthetest.3.Implicativeverbs含蓄动词◆Johnforgottolockthedoor.Johnshouldhavelockedthedoor.◆Wehappenedtomeetmyneighbourinthestreet.Wedidnotexpectedtomeetmyneighbourinthestreet.4.Changeofstatevebs◆Herfaceturnedpale.Herfacehadnotbeenpale.◆Itbegantorainatmidnight.Itdidnotrainbeforemidnight.◆Hecarriedonwiththework.Someonewasdoingthework.5.Iteratives表反复性的词语◆Thespaceshipcamebacktotheearth.Thespaceshiphadbeenontheearth.◆Thisbookisnotreprintedanymore.Thisbookwasreprintedbefore.◆Orderwasrestored.Therehadbeenorderbefore.6.Verbsofjudging◆PeteraccusedSmithofforgery.Smithforged.◆BobcriticizedIanforcheating.Iancheated.7.Adverbialclauseoftime◆Afterhisfatherdiedhesteppedintoalargefortune.Hisfatherdied.◆Sincethenewcabinetwasformed,therehavebeenalotofreformsinthecountry.Anewcabinetwasformed.8.Cleftsentences分裂句◆Itwasinthecoffeeshopthattheygotintouchwitheachother.Theygoti