pragmatics-3-references-and--inference

Review:2KindsofMeaningS________meaningconcernsthemeaningoftheutteranceitself,regardlessofcontext.P_________meaningisthemeaningexpressedbythehearerintheutterance.Itoftendependsoncontext.Review:SentenceandUtterancemeaning(句子意义和话语意义)Sentencemeaningismoreabstract,morecloselyresembling________meaning.Utterancemeaning,moreconcrete,morecloselyresembles________meaning.Grice’sdistinctionGriceusedtheterm“naturalmeaning”and“non-naturalmeaningormeaning-nn)”,Thelatterisalsocalled“speaker’smeaning”.Grice,inhisexplanationofnon-naturalmeaning,believedthatifthespeakerwantstoexpressthenon-naturalmeaningsthroughutterances,thefollowingconditionsshouldbesatisfied:Conditions(1)Speakers(S)intendedutterances(U)tocausesomeeffect(Z)inrecipientH（说话人S意欲使话语U对受话人H产生某种效果)(2)Sintended(I)tobeachievedsimplybyHrecognizingthatintention(I)（说话人S意欲通过受话人H认识到上述意图I以达此目的)Grice,1957,转引自Levinson1983:16)Grice’sIdeaGriceregardsthecommunicationprocessastheprocessofthe1)expressionofintentionbythespeaker;and2)recognitionofintentionbythelistener.语言交际过程是说话人表达自己意图和受话人领会这一意图Grice’sideaGricebelievesthatthesentencemeaningistimefree.(句子意义没有时间性)Thesentencemeaningisnotalwaysthesameastheintentionofthespeakerintheuseofthissentenceinparticularcontext.句子意义并不总是和说话人在某一场合通过使用这一句子所要表达的句子相一致.“Heisafinefriend”.Themeaningissimple,butmaybesarcasticalso!(非自然意义或说话人意义)outlineReferenceandinference:basicnotionReferentialandattributiveusesNamesandreferentsTheroleofco-textAnaphoricreferenceReferenceandinference:basicnotionQuestion:Dowordsthemselvesrefertoanythingordothepeopleusingthemrefertoanything?Wordsthemselvesdon’trefertoanything—theyarejustsigns;butpeopledo.Reference‘狗’and‘dog’bothrefertothesamething.Sensesof‘狗’and‘dog’aresimilar,notthesame,especiallyinmetaphorsorinidioms：•Does‘狗不理’=‘Dogsdon’tcare’?No—•Does‘underdog’=‘狗的下面’？No,itmeansroughly‘黑马’(or‘弱者’)Itdependsonspeakersandcontext!ReferenceWecansaythatreferentialusesoflanguage:“conveyinformationaboutrealphenomena”Non-referentialusesoflanguage,therefore,donotapplytophenomenaintheworld.Reference:FregeFrege/弗雷格said,regardingsenseandreference:2senses:MorningStarEveningStar1reference:Venus/金星REFERENCE:Theobjectthatwereferto.SENSE:ThewaywerefertotheobjectReference:FregeConsiderthetwosensesexpressedby:‘mybestfriend’and‘myex-neighbor.’Infact,theyrefertothesamereferent.InferenceWeoftensay,“readingbetweenthelines.”Yousay‘absent’.Iinferskippingclass.(moreindirectinference)Yousay‘不在了’.Iinfer‘死了’.(moredirectinference)A:Doyouwanttowatchamovie,Robin?B1:I’msorry,Ineedtopreparemylessons.B2:Oh;well...Ihavesomethingtodo.WhatcanweinferfromB1？andB2?InferenceImaginethatyouwanttointroduceRobinAndrewGlenDay.Whodoyousaythatheis?Robin,‘thatguy’RobinDay,戴罗宾,Mr.Day,Bird,萝卜,RobinAndrewGlenDay,‘he’,BrotherDay,宾宾,Honey,areallwaysthatpeoplehavereferredtohim.YouneedtoinferwhichisMOSTappropriate.Considerourrelationshipandtheaudienceaswell.AnInferenceexampleWecanseeincreasinglyLESSinference:Thatoneguy...TheauthorwestudiedThemasterofEnglishpoetryAnneHathaway’shusbandAuthorofRomeoandJulietWilliamShakespeareReferenceandinference:basicnotionReference:anactinwhichspeaker,orwriter,useslinguisticformstoenablealistener,orareader,toidentifysomething.Referringexpression:Alinguisticformwhichenablesalistenerorareader,toidentifysomething.Propernouns:Aristotle,LondonDefiniten0unphrases:theladystandingbythedoor;myhouse;theauthorofPrideandPrejudiceIndefinitenounphrases:aboy,abeautifulplace,afantasticjobPronouns:he,she,it,themselvesReferenceandinference:basicnotionDeicticexpression:specialkindsofreferringexpressionsSufficientforthesuccessfulreference(Lookatthistree!)Moreelaborateexpressionsmaybeused(Rememberthefatgirlwhoweighs150pounds?)(PlsreadP17-P18)ReferentialandattributiveusesPlsrefertoP18-19ReferentialandattributiveusesReferentialuseorattributiveuse?1)ThemanwhoisdrinkingwineisSirHenry.2)Themanwhocanliftthisrockisreallyagiant.ReferentialandattributiveusesReferentialuse:Usinganexpressiontoidentifysomeoneorsomethingwhenthepersonorthingisassumedtobeknown.Attributiveuse:Usinganexpressiontoidentifysomeoneorsomethingwithoutbeingcommittedtotheexistenceofanactualper-sonorthing,e.g.thefirstpersontowalkonMars’.ReferentialandAttributiveUsesInEnglish,‘any’specifiesattributiveusage.(Chinese,however,isratherambiguous.)Relativepronounsactattributively.whatever=anythingthatwhoever=anyonewhowherever=atanyplacewhenever=atanytimeNamesandReferentsBertrandRussellsaidthatnamesare“abbreviateddescriptions.”‘Robin’isashortformof‘RobinAndrewGlenDay,theguyfromOmaha,USA—wholivesinHarbin,andis30yearsoldandwhoismarriedtoabeautifullady.’NamesandReferentsBookexamples:Shakespeare,cheesesandwich,10:30Thestrictsemanticmeaningof‘Mozart’isextendedtoapragmaticmeaningwhichincludeswhateverMozartproduced.Therefore,theutterancesarefreedfromthegrammaticalrestraintsof‘Mozart’.NamesandReferentsAnyextranon-naturalmeaningused...isonlyvalidbecausesuchanon-naturalmeaningisusefulindifferentiation.‘Givemethecoffee.’isverysimple.But,ifyou’vebeenaskedwhichflavorofice-creamyouwouldli