5.John Locke

GoodandEvil,rewardandpunishment,aretheonlymotivestoarationalcreature:thesearethespurandreinswherebyallmankindaresetonwork,andguided.------JohnLocke•JohnLocke(1632-1704)wasoneofthegreatestphilosophersinEuropeattheendoftheseventeenthcentury.LockegrewupandlivedthroughoneofthemostextraordinarycenturiesofEnglishpoliticalandintellectualhistory.ItwasacenturyinwhichconflictsbetweenCrownandParliamentandtheoverlappingconflictsbetweenProtestants,AnglicansandCatholicsswirledintocivilwarinthe1640s.WiththedefeatanddeathofCharlesI,therebeganagreatexperimentingovernmentalinstitutionsincludingtheabolishmentofthemonarchy,theHouseofLordsandtheAnglicanchurch,andtheestablishmentofOliverCromwell'sProtectorateinthe1650s.•ThecollapseoftheProtectorateafterthedeathofCromwellwasfollowedbytheRestorationofCharlesII—thereturnofthemonarchy,theHouseofLordsandtheAnglicanChurch.Thisperiodlastedfrom1660to1688.ItwasmarkedbycontinuedconflictsbetweenKingandParliamentanddebatesoverreligioustolerationforProtestantdissentersandCatholics.ThisperiodendswiththeGloriousRevolutionof1688inwhichJamesIIwasdrivenfromEnglandandreplacedbyWilliamofOrangeandhiswifeMary.ThefinalperiodduringwhichLockelivedinvolvedtheconsolidationofpowerbyWilliamandMary,andthebeginningofWilliam'seffortstoopposethedominationofEuropebytheFranceofLouisXIV,whichlaterculminatedinthemilitaryvictoriesofJohnChurchill—theDukeofMarlborough.•LockewasborninWringtontoPuritanparentsofmodestmeans.HisfatherwasacountrylawyerwhoservedinacavalrycompanyonthePuritansideintheearlystagesoftheEnglishcivilwar.Hisfather'scommander,AlexanderPopham,becamethelocalMP,anditwashispatronagewhichallowedtheyoungJohnLocketogainanexcellenteducation.In1647LockewenttoWestminsterSchoolinLondon.TheimportanceofWestminsterschoolintheintellectuallifeoftheseventeenthcenturycanscarcelybeexaggerated.LockewasaKing'sScholar.•TheKing'sScholarswereasmallgroupofspecialboyswhohadtheprivilegeoflivingintheschoolandwhoreceivedastipendfortwoorthreeyearsbeforestandingforelectionforeitherChristChurch,OxfordorTrinityCollegeCambridge.Whilethe“majorelections”wereprobablypolitical,the“minorelections”or“challenges”wereamongthemostgenuinelycompetitiveadmissionsprocessesinEnglishschoolsoftheperiod.Lockedidnotsucceedinthechallengeuntil1650.•FromWestminsterschoolhewenttoChristChurch,Oxford,intheautumnof1652attheageoftwenty.AsWestminsterschoolwasthemostimportantEnglishschool,soChristChurchwasthemostimportantOxfordcollege.EducationatOxfordwasmedieval.Reformcame,butnotinLocke'stimethere.ThethreeandahalfyearsdevotedtogettingaB.A.wasmainlygiventologicandmetaphysicsandtheclassicallanguages.Conversationswithtutors,evenbetweenundergraduatesintheHallwereinLatin.Locke,likeHobbesbeforehim,foundtheAristotelianphilosophyhewastaughtatOxfordoflittleuse.Therewas,however,moreatOxfordthanAristotle.•Thenewexperimentalphilosophyhadarrived.JohnWilkins,Cromwell'sbrotherinlaw,hadbecomeWardenofWadhamCollege.ThegrouparoundWilkinswasthenucleusofwhatwastobecometheEnglishRoyalSociety.TheSocietygrewoutofinformalmeetingsanddiscussiongroupsandmovedtoLondonaftertheRestorationandbecameaformalinstitutioninthe1660swithchartersfromCharlesII.TheSocietysawitsaimsincontrastwiththeScholastic/Aristoteliantraditionsthatdominatedtheuniversities.Theprogramwastostudynatureratherthanbooks.•WhilethecorpuscularphilosophyandNewton'sdiscoveriesclearlyinfluencedLocke,itistheBaconianprogramofproducingnaturalhistoriesthatLockemakesreferencetowhenhetalksabouttheEssayintheIntroduction.Hewrites:•ItshallsufficetomypresentPurpose,toconsiderthediscerningFacultiesofaMan,astheyareemploy'dabouttheObjects,whichtheyhavetodowith:andIshallimaginethatIhavenotwhollymisimploy'dmyselfintheThoughtsIshallhaveonthisOccasion,ifinthisHistorical,PlainMethod,IcangiveanyAccountoftheWays,wherebyourUnderstandingcomestoattainthoseNotionsofThings,andcansetdownanyMeasureoftheCertaintyofourKnowledge…(I.1.2.,pp.43-4—thethreenumbers,arebook,chapterandsectionnumbersrespectively,followedbythepagenumberintheNidditchedition.)TheLimitsofHumanUnderstanding•LockeisoftenclassifiedasthefirstofthegreatEnglishempiricists(ignoringtheclaimsofBaconandHobbes).ThisreputationrestsonLocke'sgreatestwork,themonumentalAnEssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding.Lockeexplainshisprojectinseveralplaces.Perhapsthemostimportantofhisgoalsistodeterminethelimitsofhumanunderstanding.Lockewrites:•“ForIthoughtthatthefirstSteptowardssatisfyingtheseveralEnquiries,theMindofManwasapttoruninto,was,totakeaSurveyofourownunderstandings,examineourownPowers,andseetowhatThingstheywereadapted.Tillthatwasdone,Isuspectedthatwebeganatthewrongend,andinvainsoughtforSatisfactioninaquietandsecurePossessionofTruths,thatmostconcern'duswhilstweletlooseourThoughtsintothevastOceanofBeing,asifalltheboundlessExtent,werethenaturalandundoubtedPossessionsofourUnderstandings,whereintherewasnothingthatescapeditsDecisions,orthatescapeditsComprehension.”•ThusMen,extendingtheirEnquiriesbeyondtheirCapacities,andlettingtheirThoughtswanderintothosedepthswheretheycanfindnosureFooting;‘tisnoWonder,thattheyra