Language Learning Strategies

LanguageLearningStrategies:AnOverviewforL2TeachersMichaelLessard-Cloustonz95014[at]kgupyr.kwansei.ac.jpKwanseiGakuinUniversity(Nishinomiya,Japan)FirstpublishedinEssaysinLanguagesandLiteratures,8,atKwanseiGakuinUniversity,December1997.Thisarticleprovidesanoverviewoflanguagelearningstrategies(LLS)forsecondandforeignlanguage(L2/FL)teachers.TodosoitoutlinesthebackgroundofLLSandLLStraining,discussesathreestepapproachteachersmayfollowinusingLLSintheirclasses,andsummariseskeyreflectionsandquestionsforfutureresearchonthisaspectofL2/FLeducation.Italsolistshelpfulcontactsandinternetsiteswherereadersmayaccessup-to-dateinformationonLLSteachingandresearch.IntroductionWithinthefieldofeducationoverthelastfewdecadesagradualbutsignificantshifthastakenplace,resultinginlessemphasisonteachersandteachingandgreaterstressonlearnersandlearning.Thischangehasbeenreflectedinvariouswaysinlanguageeducationandappliedlinguistics,rangingfromtheNortheastConference(1990)entitledShiftingtheInstructionalFocustotheLearnerandannualLearners'ConferencesheldinconjuctionwiththeTESLCanadaconventionsince1991,tokeyworksonthelearner-centredcurriculum(Nunan,1988,1995)andlearner-centrednessaslanguageeducation(Tudor,1996).Thisarticleprovidesanoverviewofkeyissuesconcerningoneconsequenceoftheaboveshift:thefocusonanduseoflanguagelearningstrategies(LLS)insecondandforeignlanguage(L2/FL)learningandteaching.Indoingso,thefirstsectionoutlinessomebackgroundonLLSandsummariseskeypointsfromtheLLSliterature.ThesecondsectionconsiderssomepracticalissuesrelatedtousingLLSintheclassroom,outliningathreestepapproachtoimplementingLLStraininginnormalL2/FLcourses.ThethirdsectionthenbrieflydiscussessomeimportantissuesandquestionsforfurtherLLSresearch.Inthefourthsectionthearticleendsbynotinganumberofcontactsreadersmayusetolocateandreceiveup-to-dateinformationonLLSteachingandresearchinthiswidelydevelopingareainL2/FLeducation.1.BACKGROUNDLearningStrategiesInahelpfulsurveyarticle,WeinsteinandMayer(1986)definedlearningstrategies(LS)broadlyasbehavioursandthoughtsthatalearnerengagesinduringlearningwhichareintendedtoinfluencethelearner'sencodingprocess(p.315).LaterMayer(1988)morespecificallydefinedLSasbehavioursofalearnerthatareintendedtoinfluencehowthelearnerprocessesinformation(p.11).TheseearlydefinitionsfromtheeducationalliteraturereflecttherootsofLSincognitivescience,withitsessentialassumptionsthathumanbeingsprocessinformationandthatlearninginvolvessuchinformationprocessing.Clearly,LSareinvolvedinalllearning,regardlessofthecontentandcontext.LSarethususedinlearningandteachingmath,science,history,languagesandothersubjects,bothinclassroomsettingsandmoreinformallearningenvironments.ForinsightintotheliteratureonLSoutsideoflanguageeducation,theworksofDansereau(1985)andWeinstein,GoetzandAlexander(1988)arekey,andonerecentLSstudyofnoteisthatofFuchs,Fuchs,MathesandSimmons(1997).Intherestofthispaper,thefocuswillspecificallybeonlanguageLSinL2/FLlearning.LanguageLearningStrategiesDefinedWithinL2/FLeducation,anumberofdefinitionsofLLShavebeenusedbykeyfiguresinthefield.Earlyon,Tarone(1983)definedaLSasanattempttodeveloplinguisticandsociolinguisticcompetenceinthetargetlanguage--toincoporatetheseintoone'sinterlanguagecompetence(p.67).Rubin(1987)laterwrotethatLSarestrategieswhichcontributetothedevelopmentofthelanguagesystemwhichthelearnerconstructsandaffectlearningdirectly(p.22).Intheirseminalstudy,O'MalleyandChamot(1990)definedLSasthespecialthoughtsorbehavioursthatindividualsusetohelpthemcomprehend,learn,orretainnewinformation(p.1).Finally,buildingonworkinherbookforteachers(Oxford,1990a),Oxford(1992/1993)providesspecificexamplesofLLS(i.e.,InlearningESL,TrangwatchesU.S.TVsoapoperas,guessingthemeaningofnewexpressionsandpredictingwhatwillcomenext)andthishelpfuldefinition:...languagelearningstrageties--specificactions,behaviours,steps,ortechniquesthatstudents(oftenintentionally)usetoimprovetheirprogressindevelopingL2skills.Thesestragetiescanfacilitatetheinternalization,storage,retrieval,oruseofthenewlanguage.Strategiesaretoolsfortheself-directedinvolvementnecessaryfordevelopingcommunicativeability.(Oxford,1992/1993,p.18)Fromthesedefinitions,achangeovertimemaybenoted:fromtheearlyfocusontheproductofLSS(linguisticorsociolinguisticcompetence),thereisnowagreateremphasisontheprocessesandthecharacteristicsofLLS.Atthesametime,weshouldnotethatLLSaredistinctfromlearningstyles,whichrefermorebroadlytoalearner'snatural,habitual,andpreferredway(s)ofabsorbing,processing,andretainingnewinformationandskills(Reid,1995,p.viii),thoughthereappearstobeanobviousrelationshipbetweenone'slanguagelearningstyleandhisorherusualorpreferredlanguagelearningstrategies.WhataretheCharacteristicsofLLS?Althoughtheterminologyisnotalwaysuniform,withsomewritersusingthetermslearnerstrategies(Wendin&Rubin,1987),otherslearningstrategies(O'Malley&Chamot,1990;Chamot&O'Malley,1994),andstillotherslanguagelearningstrategies(Oxford,1990a,1996),thereareanumberofbasiccharacteristicsinthegenerallyacceptedviewofLLS.First,LLSarelearnergenerated;theyarestepsta