语言学Morphology形态学

Chapter3MorphologyMorphology,asasub-branchoflinguistics,referstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Generallyspeaking,morphologycanfurtherdividedintotwobroadcategories,namely,inflectional(屈折)morphologyandderivationalmophology,whicharebothconcernedwiththesmallestunitatthegrammaticallevel.1.WordWord:aunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetherspokenorwritten1.1Threesensesof“word”:1)Aphysicallydefinableunit:Wordmaybeseenasaclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentowpausesorblanks.2)Wordbothasageneraltermandasaspecificterm:boy,boyscheck,checks,checked,checking3)Agrammaticalunit:sentenceclausephrasewordmorpheme1.2Identificationofwords1)Stability:theconstituentpartsofacomplexwordcannotberearrangedchairman﹡manchairThechairmanlookedattheaudience.Theaudiencelookedatthechairman.2)Relativeuninterruptibility:Newelementscannotbeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.disappointmentdis+appoint+mentPaul,(Jane)andRebeccaaremyclassmates.3)Aminimumfreeform:thesmallestunitthatcanconstituteacompleteutterancebyitself,e.g.--IsJanecomingtonight?--Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.1.3Classificationofwords1)Variablevs.invariablewords:Variablewords:Onecouldfindorderedandregularseriesofgrammaticallydifferentwordforms;ontheotherhand,partofthewordremainsconstantfollow,follows,following,followed;mat,matsInvariablewords:thosewordssuchassince,when,seldom,through,hello.Theydonothaveinflectiveendings.2)Grammaticalwordsvs.lexicalwords:Grammaticalwords:expressgrammaticalmeanings,suchasconjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronounsLexicalwords:havelexicalmeanings,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.Thelexicalwordscarrythemaincontentofalanguage(contentwords)andthegrammaticalwordsservetolinkthedifferentpartsofasentencetogether(functionwords).3)Closed-classwordsvs.open-classwords:Closed-class:awordwhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newmembersarenotregularlyadded.Pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.Open-class:Awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited.Nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbsNote:Thedistinctionisnotquiteasclear-cutasitseems.Prepositions:regarding,throughout,outof,accordingto,withregardto,inspiteof,bemeansof;Auxiliaryverbs4)Wordclass:ItisclosetothenotionofPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar.Tenwordclassesareestablished:noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,numeral,interjection,article.Somenewcategories:A.Particles(小品词):theinfinitemarker(to),thenegativemarker(not),thesubordinateunitsinphrasalverbs(getby,doup,lookback,turnin,etc.)B.Auxiliaries(助动词):usedtoberegardedasverbs,linguiststendtodefinethemasaseparatewordclassratherthanverbs,suchasdo,does,did,will,shall,have,has,had,etc.C.Pro-form(替代形式):referstotheclosedsetsofitemswhichcanbeusedtosubstituteforanominalgroup(名词词组)orasinglenoun.Pro-adjective:Yourpenisred.Soismine.Pro-verb:HeknowsEnglishbetterthanhedid.Pro-adverb:Hehopeshe’llwinandIhopesotoo.Pro-locative(代处所词):Jame’shidingthere,behindthedoor.D.Determiners(限定词):wordswhichareusedbeforethenounactingasheadofanounphrase,anddeterminethekindofreferencethenounphrasehas,e.g.the,a(n),some,allTherearethreesubclassesofdeterminers:1)Predeterminers:all,both,half,double,twice,threetimes,one-third,one-fifth2)Centraldeterminers:a,an,the,this,that,these,those,every,each,some,any,no,either,neither,my,our,your,his,her,its,their3)Postdeterminers:cardinalnumerals(基数词),ordinalnumerals(序数词),generalordinals(一般顺序词):next,last,past,(an)other,additionalandotherquantifierslikemany,afew,several,much,little,alotof,plentyof,agreatdealof,agreatnumberofWhendifferentsub-classesofdeterminersoccurtogether,theyfollowtheorderofpredeterminers+centraldeterminers+postdeterminers.Withineachsubclass,themembersareusuallyexclusiveofeachother.*theiralltroublealltheirtrouble*fivetheallboysallthefiveboys*allthisboyalltheseboys*allbothgirlsButordinalnumeralsandgeneralordinalsmayoccurbeforecardinalnumerals.thefirsttwodaysanotherthreeweeksTheformationofwordMorphemes:Technically,amorphemeisdefinedasaminimalmeaningfulunitinthegrammaticalsystemofalanguage.Thecomponentsofawordareknownasmorphemes.Theythemselvescannotbefurtheranalyzed:chairman:chair,mantownhall:town,hallboys:boy,-schecking:check,-ingdisappointment:dis-,appoint,-mentMorpheme--theminimalunitofmeaning---Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.1)morphemeboy,desire2)morphemeboy+ish,desir(e)+ble3)morphemeboy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity4)morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity5)morphemeun+gentle+man+li+ness6)morphemedis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism7)morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ismSememevs.Morpheme,andPhonemevs.Morpheme1)Sememevs.morphemeSememe(义素)isthesmallestcomponentofmeaning.e.g.Themorpheme–shasonlyonesememe:PLURALITY,meaningmorethanone.Therelationshipbetweensememeandmorpheme,fivemappingandnon-mappingoccasions:i.Onemorphemevs.onesememeOnemorphemehasonlyonesememe.e.g.–less,meaningWITHOUTfearless,careless,ceaseless,countless,d