语言学5

Phonetics:thesoundoflanguagesLinguisticfunctionofphonetics•Thestudyofspeechsoundsiscalledphonetics.•Ourlinguisticknowledgemakesitpossibletoignorenonlinguisticdifferencesinspeech.•wearecapableofmakingsoundsthatweknowarenotspeechsoundsinourlanguageClassificationofphoneticstudies•Thescienceofphoneticsattemptstodescribeallofthesoundsusedinalllanguagesoftheworld.•Acousticphoneticsfocusesonthephysicalpropertiesofsounds;•auditoryphoneticsisconcernedwithhowlistenersperceivethesesounds;and•articulatoryphoneticsisthestudyofhowthevocaltractproducesthesoundsoflanguage.ThePhoneticAlphabet•Orthography,oralphabeticspellingvs.phoneticalphabet•Thesamesoundisrepresentedvariouslybydifferentspellingalphabets•Oneletterrepresentsthevarioussounds•acombinationoflettersmayrepresentasinglesound•Somelettersaresilent•Certainsoundisnotrepresentbycertainsound:cute,fume,use•In1888membersoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociationdevelopedaphoneticalphabettosymbolizethesoundsofalllanguages.•TheinventorsofthisInternationalPhoneticAlphabet,orIPA,knewthataphoneticalphabetshouldincludejustenoughsymbolstorepresentthefundamentalsoundsofalllanguages.•Phoneticsymbolsarewritteninsquarebrackets[]todistinguishthemfromordinaryletters.ArticulatoryPhonetics•Consonantsareproducedwithsomerestrictionorclosureinthevocaltractthatimpedestheflowofairfromthelungs.•Weclassifyconsonantsaccordingtowhereinthevocaltracttheairflowrestrictionoccurs,calledtheplaceofarticulationPlaceofarticulation•Bilabials[p][b][m]Whenweproducea[p],[b],or[m]wearticulatebybringingbothlipstogether.•Labiodentals[f][v]Wealsouseourlipstoform[f]and[v].Wearticulatethesesoundsbytouchingthebottomliptotheupperteeth.•Interdentals[][]Thesesounds,bothspelledth,arepronouncedbyinsertingthetipofthetonguebetweentheteeth.forsomespeakersthetonguemerelytouchesbehindtheteeth,makingasoundmorecorrectlycalleddental.•Alveolars[t][d][n][s][z][l][r]Allsevenofthesesoundsarepronouncedwiththetongueraisedinvariouswaystothealveolarridge.•Palatals[][][t][d][j]Forthesesounds,whichoccurinmission,measure,cheap,judge,andyoyo,theconstrictionoccursbyraisingthefrontpartofthetonguetothepalate.•Velars[k][g][]Anotherclassofsoundsisproducedbyraisingthebackofthetonguetothesoftpalateorvelum.•Uvulars[][q][]Uvularsoundsareproducedbyraisingthebackofthetonguetotheuvula,thefleshyprotuberancethathangsdowninthebackofourthroats.TherinFrenchisoftenauvulartrillsymbolizedby[ʀ].Theuvularsounds[q]and[ɢ]occurinArabic.•Glottals[h][]Thesoundof[h]isfromtheflowofairthroughtheopenglottis,andpastthetongueandlipsastheypreparetopronounceavowelsound,whichalwaysfollows[h].glottalstop[].MannerofArticulation•Speechsoundsalsovaryinthewaytheairstreamisaffectedasitflowsfromthelungsupandoutofthemouthandnose.•VoicedandVoicelessSounds:Soundsarevoicelesswhenthevocalcordsareapartsothatairflowsfreelythroughtheglottisintotheoralcavity.Ifthevocalcordsaretogether,theairstreamforcesitswaythroughandcausesthemtovibrate.Suchsoundsarevoiced.•Voicelesssoundsfallintotwoclassesdependingonthetimingofthevocalcordclosure.Unaspiratedvs.AspiratedNasalandOralSounds•Whenthevelumisnotinitsraisedposition,airescapesthroughboththenoseandthemouth.Soundsproducedthiswayarenasalsounds.•Soundsproducedwiththevelumup,blockingtheairfromescapingthroughthenose,areoralsounds•Stopsareconsonantsinwhichtheair-streamiscompletelyblockedintheoralcavityforashortperiod•Intheproductionofsomecontinuants,theairflowissoseverelyobstructedthatitcausesfriction,andthesoundsarethereforecalledfricatives.•AffricatesThesesoundsareproducedbyastopclosurefollowedimmediatelybyagradualreleaseoftheclosurethatproducesaneffectcharacteristicofafricative.•Liquids[l][r]Intheproductionofthesounds[l]and[r],thereissomeobstructionoftheair-streaminthemouth,butnotenoughtocauseanyrealconstrictionorfriction.•Glides[j][w]Thesounds[j]and[w],theinitialsoundsofyou[ju]andwe[wi],areproducedwithlittleobstructionoftheair-stream.Theyarealwaysfolloweddirectlybyavowelanddonotoccurattheendofwords•Theglide[j]isapalatalsound;thebladeofthetongue(thefrontpartminusthetip)israisedtowardthehardpalate.Theglide[w]isproducedbybothroundingthelipsandraisingthebackofthetonguetowardthevelum.Itisthusalabio-velarglide.•thelabio-velarglideinword“which”isvoiceless,symbolizedas[ʍ]•Approximantsthesounds[w],[j],[r],and[l]arealternativelycalledapproximants,forthearticulatorsapproximateafrictionalcloseness,butnoactualfrictionoccurs.•Analveolartrillisproducedbyvibratingthetonguetipagainstthealveolarridge.uvulartrill,producedbyvibratingtheuvula.ItsIPAsymbolis[ʀ]•flapandisproducedbyaflickofthetongueagainstthealveolarridge.•Clickssoundsaremadebymovingairinthemouthbetweenvariousarticulators.Alateralclick,whichislikethesoundonemakestoencourageahorse,occursinXhosaVowels•Thequalityofavoweldependsontheshapeofthevocaltractastheairpassesthrough.•TonguePosition,LipRounding•Adiphthongisasequenceoftwovowelsounds.Diphthongsarepresentinthephoneticinventoryofmanylanguages.Thesimplevowels,calledmonophthongs.MonophthongsofAmericanEnglish•NasalizationofVowels:Vowelscanbeproducedwitha