托福阅读AgricultureintheLateOttomanEmpire

托福阅读第三篇AgricultureintheLateOttomanEmpire：奥斯曼帝国晚期农业看标题应该是介绍当时的农业情况，说明文2托福阅读第三篇AgricultureintheLateOttomanEmpireThroughoutitshistory,agriculturewastheeconomicmainstayoftheOttomanEmpire,whichdominatedNorthAfrica,theMiddleEast,Turkey,andsoutheasternEuropeforover600yearsuntiltheearlytwentiethcentury.（开门见山，奥斯曼帝国持续约600年，其中农业是其经济基础）Mostcultivatorspossessedsmalllandholdings,engaginginahostoftasks,withtheircropsandanimalproductsmainlydedicatedtoself-consumption.（递进，大部分农民都拥有小土地，收割庄稼供自己食用）Butenormouschangesovertimeprevailedintheagrariansector.（转折，但是有巨大的转变）Beginninginthelateeighteenthcentury,agriculturebecamemoreandmorecommercialized,withincreasingamountsofproducegoingtosaletodomesticandinternationalconsumers.（递进，这种转变是农业变的越来越细化，出口到国内国外）第一段点名主题，介绍奥斯曼帝国的农业，尤其是18世纪晚期开始的农业细化3托福阅读第三篇Atleastthreemajorenginesincreasedthisagriculturalproductiondevotedtothemarket,thefirstbeingrisingdemand,bothinternationalanddomestic.（递进展开：第一点原始是需求增加）Abroad,especiallyafter1840,thelivingstandardsandbuyingpowerofmanyEuropeansimprovedsubstantially,permittingthemtobuyawiderchoiceandquantityofgoods.（递进，这是因为1840年后欧洲的生活水准和购买力都提高了）Risingdomesticmarketswithintheempirewerealsoimportant,thankstoincreasedurbanizationaswellasmountingpersonalconsumption.（递进，国内的消费上升也是同样重要）Inthelatenineteenthcentury,newlyopenedrailroaddistrictsbroughtaflowofdomesticwheatandothercerealstomajorcoastalcities.（递进，19世纪晚期，铁路使得谷物等粮食可以运送到海岸城市）Railroadsalsoattractedmarketgardenerswhonowcouldgrowandshipfruitsandvegetablestotheexpandingandnewlyaccessiblemarketsofthesecities.（递进，这些铁路也吸引了园艺家在这些地区经商，种植水果蔬菜）第二段，展开讲农业发展的第一个原因：需求增长，经济变好和铁路发展4托福阅读第三篇Thesecondenginedrivingagriculturaloutputconcernscultivators'increasingpaymentoftheirtaxesincashratherthaninkind(thatis,inagriculturalorotherproducts).（并列上一段，第二点原因是人们更愿意用先进而不是物品来付税）Somehistorianshaveassertedthattheincreasingcommitmenttomarketagriculturewasaproductbothofamountingpercapitataxburdenandthestate'sgrowingpreferencefortaxpaymentsincashratherthaninkind.（递进，对于市场农业的押金一方面是由于单位资产税的提高，二是国家更喜欢现金）Inthisview,suchgovernmentdecisionsforcedcultivatorstogrowcropsforsaleinordertopaytheirtaxes.（递进，所以有些国家要求农民种庄稼然后买掉来付税）Thus,statepolicyisseenasthemostimportantfactorinfluencingthecultivators'shiftfromsubsistencefarmingtomarketagriculture.（总结，这样看来，国家政策是导致农民从粮食生产转变到市场农业的）第三段，介绍农业市场化的第二个原因，国家政策，更愿意接受现金5托福阅读第三篇However,cultivators'risinginvolvementinthemarketwasnotsimplyareactiveresponsetothestate'sdemandsforcashtaxes;otherfactorswereatwork.（承上启下，讲第三点）Therewasathirdenginedrivingincreasedagriculturalproduction,cultivators'owndesiresforconsumergoods.(递进，第三点是农民对生活消费品的需求)AmongOttomanconsumers,increasinglyfrequentchangesintaste,alongwiththerisingavailabilityofcheapimportedgoods,stimulatedarisingconsumptionofgoods.（递进，这是因为品味在不断变化，同时商品很便宜）Thispatternofrisingconsumptionbeganintheeighteenthcentury,asseenbytheurbanphenomenonoftheTulipPeriod(1718¨C1730)atimeofurbanrevivalandorientationtowardtheWestlandacceleratedsubsequently.（递进举例，比如郁金香时期）Wantingmoreconsumergoods,cultivatorsneededmorecash.（递进，因为想要更多商品，所以他们需要现金）Thus,ruralfamiliesworkedharderthantheyhadpreviously,notmerelybecauseofcashtaxes.（递进，所以农民更努力，不仅是因为交税）Insuchcircumstances,leisuretimediminished,cashincomesrose,andtheflowofconsumergoodsintothecountrysideaccelerated.（总结递进，这样，休闲时间少了，收入高了）第四段讲第三点要素，对生活用品的需求变高了，促进了人民对现金的追求6托福阅读第三篇Increasesinagriculturalproductionbothpromotedandaccompaniedavastexpansionoftheareaoflandundercultivation.（递进前一段，农产品的提高，促进了土地的扩大）Atthebeginningoftheeighteenthcenturyandindeeduntiltheendoftheempire,thereremainedvaststretchesofuncultivated,sometimesnearlyempty,landoneveryside.（对比开始，帝国早期有很多荒废的土地）Thesespacesbegantofillin,aprocessfinallycompletedonlyinthe1950sinmostareasoftheformerempire.（但随后大部分土地都被利用了）Manyfactorswereinvolved.（承接，介绍原因）Inmanycases,familiesincreasedtheamountoftimeatwork,bringingintocultivationuncultivatedlandalreadyundertheircontrol.（递进，首先是农民工作的时间变长了）Theyalsoengagedinsharecroppingagreeingtoworkanother'slandandpayingthatpersonashareoftheoutput.（其次，他们会租别人的土地）Oftensuchacreagehadbeenpasturelandforanimalsbutnowwasgivenovertocropproduction.（递进，以前这些土地通常是放牧的，而不是种庄稼的）TheextraordinarilyfertilelandsofMoldaviaandWallachia(modernRomania),forexample,hadbeenamongtheleastpopulatedlandsoftheOttomanempireintheeighteenthcentury,butnowsawlargeamountsoflandbroughtundertheplow.（举例，比如M和W两地，在帝国早期是贫瘠之地，现在到处都有人开垦）Significantconcentrationsofcommercialagriculturefirstformedinareaseasilyaccessiblebywater,suchastheDanubeRiverbasin.【A】（递进，这种农业改革首先发生在水源附近，举了一个例子）Duringthenineteenthcentury,expansioninsuchareascontinued,andinteriorregionsjoinedthelistaswell.【B】（递进，后来内陆地区也开始了）Therewerealsosomeincreasesinproductivity.（递进，生产率也提升了）【C】Irrigationprojects,oneformofintensiveagriculture,developedinsomeareas,andtheuseofmodernagriculturaltoolsincreased.【D】（递进，也用上了现代化的生产方式，灌溉等）Butmoreintensiveexploitationofexistingresourcesremainedcomparativelyunusual,andmostincreasesinproductionderivedfromplacingadditionallandundercultivation.（转折，但是最大的提升还是来自有开垦新地）第五段总结农业改革的变化，土地面积的扩大，耕种工具的变化等7托福阅读第三篇1.Accordingtoparagraph1,inwhichofthefollowingwaysdid