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FreeexchangeWeariedscienceNewideasaregettinghardertofind—fornow自由交流科学进步乏力新想法日益难觅——至少目前如此WEREtherefarfewerundiscoveredideasouttherethaninourmoreprimitivepast,howwouldpeopleknow?Thisisnotanidlequestion;decodingthemysteriesofnature,fromatmosphericpressuretoelectricitytoDNA,allowedpeopletobendthenaturalworldtotheirwill,andtogrowricherintheprocess.Adwindlingstockofdiscoverableinsightswouldmeancorrespondinglylessscopeforprogressinthefuture—adismalprospect.Andsomesignssuggestthatthewellofourimaginationhasrundry.Thoughevermoreresearchersarediggingforinsights,accordingtonewresearch,theflowofnewideasisflagging.Butthatuncoveringnewideasisastruggledoesnotmeanthathumanityisnearthelimitsofitsunderstanding.假如较之人类更原始的过去,未被发掘的新想法少了很多,那么要如何获得它们?这可不是个无聊的问题:正是由于破解了从气压、电,到DNA等大自然的奥秘,人们才得以驾驭自然界,并在过程中变得富有。如果可以探求的真知灼见越来越少,那么未来进步的空间也将相应减少,这样的前景令人沮丧。而且有迹象表明我们的想象力已经枯竭。新研究显示,尽管挖掘新知的研究人员越来越多,新想法的涌现却愈见乏力。但是,获得新发现越来越难,并不意味着人类已经接近其知性的极限。Thedevelopmentofnewideas—meaningscientifictruthsorcleverinventions—allowseconomiestogrowricheryearafteryear.AddingmoreworkersormachinerytoaneconomyboostsGDP,butonlyforawhile.Applyingevermoremenwithhoestothecultivationofafieldwillgeneratediminishingreturnsintermsofcropyields,forinstance;wringingmorefromthesoileventuallyrequirestheuseofbetterseed-stockorfertiliser.Unlesshumanityfindsnewwaystodomorewiththesameamountoflabourandcapital,growthinincomespetersouttonothing.新想法(即科学真理或巧妙的发明)的发展让经济体日渐富裕。在一个经济体中增加更多的工人或机械可以提高GDP,但这种增长只能持续一段时间。例如,不断让更多人拿着锄头去耕作,农作物收成的收益会递减;要从土地得到更多回报,最终还是得使用更好的种苗或肥料。如果人类不能找到新方法来利用同等数量的劳动力和资本实现更多,那么收入增长就会逐渐减少至零。Dwindlinggrowthinincomesisnotabaddescriptionofwhathashappenedinmuchoftheindustrialisedworldinrecentdecades.Meagrerises,inturn,leadsometoconcludethattherearesimplynotmanybreakthroughslefttobeuncovered,ofthesortthatliftedlivingstandardsduringtheIndustrialRevolution.That,forinstance,istheviewofRobertGordon,aneconomistatNorthwesternUniversity,whosebleakbook,“TheRiseandFallofAmericanGrowth”,reckonsthattheeraofeconomicrevolutionisbehindus.收入增幅逐渐萎缩这一说法还算贴切地描述了大部分工业化国家近几十年来的现实情况。增幅之微小又让一些人得出结论:已经不再有多少类似工业革命期间提高了人类生活水平的那种突破可供人类发掘了。美国西北大学的经济学家罗伯特•戈登(RobertGordon)就持此观点,他的《美国经济增长的兴衰》(TheRiseandFallofAmericanGrowth)—书笔调阴郁,认为经济革命的时代已一去不复返。Isit?ArecentpaperbyNicholasBloom,CharlesJonesandMichaelWebbofStanfordUniversity,andJohnVanReenenoftheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,providesrelevantevidence.Thoughstrikinganagnosticpositionastowhetherhumanityhasusedupallitseurekamoments,theynonethelessconcludethatnewideasaregettingmoreexpensivetofind.Theauthorsconsiderfourdifferentcasestudies,withinwhichtheycompareresearch“inputs”(suchasthemoneyspentonresearchersandlabequipment)andoutputs.Thenumberoftransistorsthatcanbesqueezedontoamicrochiphasdoubledwithreassuringregularityforhalfacentury,everytwoyearsorso—aphenomenonknownasMoore’sLaw(afterGordonMoore,afounderofIntel).Yetthissuccesshasbeenachievedbypouringmoreandmoreresourcesintotheeffortovertime.Theresearchproductivityofeachscientistparticipatinginthebattletocramintransistorshascorrespondinglytumbled.果真如此吗?斯坦福大学的尼古拉斯•布鲁姆(NicholasBloom)、查尔斯•琼斯(CharlesJones)和迈克尔•韦伯(MichaelWebb)以及麻省理工学院的约翰•范•里宁(JohnVanReenen)最近在共同发表的一篇论文中给出了相关证据。尽管对于人类是否已经耗尽了所有的顿悟时刻这一点他们表示不得而知,但他们得出结论称获得新想法的代价越来越高。几位作者考虑了四个不同的案例,用于比较研究的“投入”(比如花在研究人员和实验室设备上的资金)和产出。半个世纪以来,微芯片上的晶体管数量以每两年翻一番的速度稳定增长,这个现象称为摩尔定律(以英特尔创始人之一戈登•摩尔的名字命名),但这种增长得以维持有赖于越来越多的资源被投入其中。而每个参与晶体管密度之战的科学家的研究生产力也相应下降。Muchthesameistrueinotherfieldsofinquiry,suchaseffortstoraisecropyieldsandextendlife.Astheauthorsacknowledge,squeezingorangesdryisnotaproblemifneworangeskeeparriving:ie,ifnewlinesofresearchappearevenasothersareexhausted.Yettheyreckonthat,acrosstheeconomyasawhole,thenotionthatthecostofideasisrisingholdstrue.Sincethe1930s,theeffectivenumberofresearchersatworkhasincreasedbyafactorof23.Butannualgrowthinproductivityhasdeclined(seechart).其他研究领域基本也是如此,比如提高农作物的产量和延长寿命。正如作者们指出,如果有新的橘子不断提供补充,那么榨干现有的橘子就不是个问题,也就是说,如果有新的研究出现,那么其他的枯竭了也没所谓。不过他们认为,纵观整个经济,发掘新想法成本上升的看法是正确的。20世纪30年代以来,“实际研究人员”数量【译注:在这篇论文中,这个数字从研发开支推算而来】增加了23倍,但他们的生产力年增长率却呈下降趋势(见图表)。NottheonlyfruitDespairispremature,however.Theefforttofindnew,growthboostingideasisnotnecessarilyhopeless,justcomplicated.Whetherherdingmoreresearchersintothelaboratoryraisesgrowthmightdependonhowintensivelytheresultingbrainstormsareused,forexample.Acrosstheglobaleconomy,manycountrieshaveyetfullytoexploitideasalreadyinusebyfirmsatthefrontierofscientificknowledge.Theproblem,inotherwords,isnotthatorangesareinshortsupplyorarealreadysqueezeddry,butratherthatofthetenworkersatthejuicebar,onlyonehaslearnedtodothesqueezing.Investmentsineducationandtraining,toexpandtheshareofworkersthatcanusenewideas,orinthequalityofmanagement,toimprovehoweffectivelyideasareappliedwithinfirms,woulddowondersforgrowth,eveniftheworld’sscientistsareidlyscratchingtheirheads.橘子不是唯一的水果然而,现在就绝望为时过早。努力寻求促进增长的新想法并不一定无望,只是很复杂。比如说,让更多研究人员进入实验室是否能促进增长,可能取决于对他们的头脑风暴成果利用的程度。从全球范围看,许多国家都还没有充分利用那些科学前沿企业已在应用的创意。换句话说,问题不是橘子供应不足或是已被榨干,而是果汁吧的十名员工中只有一人学会了榨汁。投资于教育和培训以扩大能利用新想法的工人的比重,或者投资于提高管理质量以令想法在企业内部得到更有效的应用,都是能带来增长的灵丹妙药,即便全世界的科学家都在徒劳地苦思冥想。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