(0)Introduction(modified)

新编英语语法教程外国语学院孟凡茂GrammaticalRanksIntroduction:Grammaristhestructuralsystemofalanguage.ThegrammaroftheEnglishlanguageisorganizedintofiveranks.Theyare:thesentence,theclause,thephrase,thewordandthemorpheme.Thesentenceisthehighestrankofgrammaticalunitwhilethemorphemeisthelowestrank.Eachrankiscomposedofoneormorethanonegra-mmaticalunitoftheimmediatelowerrank.Thusthesentenceisagrammaticalunitthatconsistsofoneormorethanoneclause;theclause,oneormorethanonephrase;thephrase,oneormorethanoneword;andtheword,oneormorethanonemorpheme.morphemeStructuralsystemofEnglishphrasewordclausesentencethehighestrankofgrammaticalunitthelowestrankThehunt-erhaskill-edapoison-oussnake.词素NPCl.(Inde.Cl.)Sen.词词组分句句子Det.Aux.VAdj.NMVDet.NVPNPAfullsentencecangenerallybesegmentedrankbyrankdowntoitssmallestconstituents——themorphemes.Weneverknowtheworthofwatertillthewellisdry.Cl.Sen.Godhelpthosewhohelpthemselves.Cl.Sen.Cl.Cl.0.1Morphemes(词素)Themorphemeisthesmallestgrammaticalunit,alsothesmallestmeaningfulelementofspeech.Morphemesfallintotwocategories:freemorphemes(自由词素)andboundmorphemes(粘着词素).1)FreemorphemesAfreemorphemehasacompletemeaningandcanstandbyitselfasasimpleword,e.g.:a,the,book,boy,mother,face,water,take,go,in,for,good,dictionary,etc.(除了派生词、复合词之外的简单词)这些自由词素不仅可以作为一个词单独使用，而且具有很强的构词能力，与词缀(Affix)相结合构成派生词(Derivative)。如：love→loveable/lovable,loveless,lovelypossible→possibly,possibility,impossible,impossibly,impossibility,etc.自由词素还可以与其他自由词素相结合构成复合词(Compoundword)。如：car-sick(晕车的),love-sick(害相思病的),take-in(欺骗/欺诈),go-between(中间人/媒人),water-closet(厕所),mother-in-law(岳母/婆婆),happy-go-lucky(乐天派/无忧无虑的),good-for-nothing(无用之人),forget-me-not(勿忘草),touch-me-not(含羞草),etc.2)Boundmorphemes附加在词根前面或后面,构成新词。(分为前缀和后缀)(通过词尾变化表示一定的语法意义)1.名词复数词尾-s/es2.名词属格词尾-’s3.动词过去式和过去分词词尾-ed4.动词现在时第三人称单数词尾-s/-es5.现在分词词尾-ing6.形容词和副词的比较级和最高级词尾-er/-estAboundmorphemeisalsomeaningful,butthemean-ingisnotcompleteinitselfunlessitisattachedtosomeotherform.Therefore,aboundmorphemecannotstandbyitself.Itonlyexistsasaderivationalorinflectionalaffix.DerivationalAffixesInflectionalAffixesAffixes0.2Words(词)Thewordiscomposedofoneormorethanonemor-pheme.Wordscanbeclassifiedintwoways.1.Word-formationClassificationofWordsSimplewords(单词素词或自由词)(由单一自由词素构成)Derivatives:(词根+词缀或词缀+词根Compounds:(由两个或两个以上的词素构成)Closed-classwords(封闭类词)2.GrammaticalfunctionsOpen-classwords(开放类词)封闭类词:这类词数目是确定的、有限的。新成员不会有规律地增加。主要包括:介词、连词、限定词、代词、助动词。就表达的意义来说,词可以分为语法词(grammaticalword)和词汇词(lexicalword)。语法词是用来把不同的片段连接在一起的,它们表达一定的语法意义,所以,该类词又叫做功能词(functionword);而具有词汇意义(指物质、动作和性质)的是词汇词,词汇词承载了语言的主要内容,所以这类词又叫做实义词(contentword)。语法词和词汇词的区别导致了封闭类词和开放类词的区别。开放类词:这类词随着新观念、新发明等的出现,词典中会不断地、经常地增加新的词语。主要包括名词、动词、形容词、副词。实际上,封闭类词和开放类词之间的差别并不像看起来那么清晰。介词虽然是个封闭类,但在英语中却是一个相对开放的类。像regarding(关于)、throughout(遍及,贯穿)、outof(从…中，没有)、accordingto(依照)、withregardto(关于)、inspiteof(尽管)、bymeansof(用…方法)等一类的表达成分现在都认为是介词或复合介词。很多词都属于两类或更多的词类,如：down(adv.,prep.,adj.,vt.,n.):e.g.:Sitdown,please.(adv.)Tearsofhappinessrandownhercheeks.(prep.)adownescalator/Thecomputerisdownagain.(adj.)Theydowned3enemyplanes.(vt.)duckdown;adown(wadded)outwear(n.)注意跨类现象/兼类现象又如work,talk,book,table,man这些最常用的词既是名词,又是动词;on,in,about既是介词,又是副词。◆Partofspeech:n.,v.,art.,pron.,adj.,adv.,prep.,conj.,numeralandinterj.0.3Phrases(词组)Thephraseiscomposedofoneormorethanoneword.Generally,thephraseisagroupofwordsorganizedinaspecificwaywithakeywordasitshead.Thewordclassoftheheaddeterminestheclassofthephraseandthewayinwhichthewordsareorganized.(有时,只有一个中心词,单独使用是一个词,放在句子中便是词组。)Phrasescanbedividedintofivecategories,whicharenounphrases,verbphrases,adjectivephrases,adverbphrasesandprepositionalphrases.(英语中无代词词组，归入名词词组。)1)ThenounphraseThenounphraseisaphrasewithanounasitshead.Thegeneralpatternofanounphraseis:(determiner+)(premodifier+)noun(+postmodifier)e.g.:Badnewshaswings.Agoodhusbandmakesagoodwife.Thenewstudentsittinginthecorneroftheclass-roomisreadingamobilephoneshortmessage.I’mTony.2)TheverbphraseTheverbphraseisaphrasewithamainverbasitshead.Averbphrasecanbesimpleorcomplex.Asimpleverbphraseisjustamainverbor“modifier+mainverb”.e.g.:Thedoctortoldherawhitelie.ImuchpreferXiaoNiu.Acomplexverbphraseisamainverbprecededbyanauxiliary(orauxiliaries)(+modifier).e.g.:Iwillcertainlydoit.Heisjoking.Itmusthaverainedlastnight.Intermsofgrammaticalform,averbphrasecanbefiniteornon-finite.Theformofafiniteverbphrasechangesaccordingtotenseorsubject.(限定动词词组有“时”的限制、主语人称和数的限制。)e.g.:Youlook/Helooksfine.Iam/wassmokingalot.Whiletheformofanon-finiteverbphrasedoesnotchangeaccordingtotenseorsubject.(既没有“时”的区别,也没有人称和数的变化,包括:不定式、-ing分词和-ed分词。)e.g.:LittleMarywantstohaveacellphone.Iheardmypetnamecalledagain.Iheardawomanshoutingout“Fire!Fire!”.3)TheadjectivephraseTheadjectivephraseisaphrasewithanadjectiveasitshead.Thegeneralpatternofanadjectivephraseis:(modifier+)adjective(+postmodifier/complementation)e.g.:Thedogbecomesveryoldnow.Thenoisewasloudenoughtowake(up)thedead.Heiscrazyabouther.4)TheadverbphraseTheadverbphraseisaphrasewithanadverbasitshead.Thegeneralpatternofanadverbphraseis:(modifier+)adverb(+postmodifier)e.g.:Nowlistencarefully,everyone.Hedroveveryslowl