高考物理复习资料《机械能守恒定律》

•Definemotivation•Compareandcontrastearlytheoriesofmotivation•Compareandcontrastcontemporarytheoriesofmotivation•DiscusscurrentissuesinmotivationMotivation-theprocessbywhichaperson’seffortsareenergized,directed,andsustainedtowardattainingagoal.Maslow’sHierarchyofNeedsMcGregor’sTheoriesXandYHerzberg’sTwo-FactorTheoryMcClelland’sThreeNeedsTheoryHierarchyofneedstheory-Maslow’stheorythathumanneeds—physiological,safety,social,esteem,andself-actualization—formasortofhierarchy.Physiologicalneeds-aperson’sneedsforfood,drink,shelter,sexualsatisfaction,andotherphysicalneeds.Safetyneeds-aperson’sneedsforsecurityandprotectionfromphysicalandemotionalharm.Socialneeds-aperson’sneedsforaffection,belongingness,acceptance,andfriendship.Esteemneeds-aperson’sneedsforinternalfactors(e.g.,self-respect,autonomy,andachievement)andexternalfactors(suchasstatus,recognition,andattention).Self-actualizationneeds-aperson’sneedtobecomewhatheorsheiscapableofbecoming.TheoryX-theassumptionthatemployeesdislikework,arelazy,avoidresponsibility,andmustbecoercedtoperform.TheoryY-theassumptionthatemployeesarecreative,enjoywork,seekresponsibility,andcanexerciseself-direction.Two-factortheory(motivation-hygienetheory)-themotivationtheorythatclaimsthatintrinsicfactorsarerelatedtojobsatisfactionandmotivation,whereasextrinsicfactorsareassociatedwithjobdissatisfaction.Hygienefactors-factorsthateliminatejobdissatisfaction,butdon’tmotivate.Motivators-factorsthatincreasejobsatisfactionandmotivation.Three-needstheory-themotivationtheorythatsitesthreeacquired(non-innate)needs(achievement,power,andaffiliation)asmajormotivesinwork.Needforachievement(nAch)-thedrivetosucceedandexcelinrelationtoasetofstandards.Needforpower(nPow)-theneedtomakeothersbehaveinawaythattheywouldnothavebehavedotherwise.Needforaffiliation(nAff)-thedesireforfriendlyandcloseinterpersonalrelationships.Goal-settingtheory-thepropositionthatspecificgoalsincreaseperformanceandthatdifficultgoals,whenaccepted,resultinhigherperformancethandoeasygoals.Self-efficacy-anindividual’sbeliefthatheorsheiscapableofperformingatask.Reinforcementtheory-thetheorythatbehaviorisafunctionofitsconsequences.Reinforcers-consequencesimmediatelyfollowingabehaviorwhichincreasetheprobabilitythatthebehaviorwillberepeated.Jobdesign-thewaytasksarecombinedtoformcompletejobs.Jobscope-thenumberofdifferenttasksrequiredinajobandthefrequencywithwhichthosetasksarerepeated.Jobenlargement-thehorizontalexpansionofajobthatoccursasaresultofincreasingjobscope.Jobenrichment-theverticalexpansionofajobthatoccursasaresultofadditionalplanningandevaluationofresponsibilities.Jobdepth-thedegreeofcontrolemployeeshaveovertheirwork.Jobcharacteristicsmodel(JCM)-aframeworkforanalyzinganddesigningjobsthatidentifiesfiveprimarycorejobdimensions,theirinterrelationships,andtheirimpactonoutcomes.Skillvariety-thedegreetowhichajobrequiresavarietyofactivitiessothatanemployeecanuseanumberofdifferentskillsandtalents.Taskidentity-thedegreetowhichajobrequirescompletionofawholeandidentifiablepieceofwork.Tasksignificance-thedegreetowhichajobhasasubstantialimpactonthelivesorworkofotherpeople.Autonomy-thedegreetowhichajobprovidessubstantialfreedom,independence,anddiscretiontotheindividualinschedulingworkanddeterminingtheprocedurestobeusedincarryingitout.Feedback-thedegreetowhichcarryingoutworkactivitiesrequiredbyajobresultsintheindividual’sreceptionofdirectandclearinformationabouthisorherperformanceeffectiveness.Relationalperspectiveofworkdesign-anapproachtojobdesignthatfocusesonhowpeople’stasksandjobsareincreasinglybasedonsocialrelationships.Proactiveperspectiveofworkdesign-anapproachtojobdesigninwhichemployeestaketheinitiativetochangehowtheirworkisperformed.High-involvementworkpractices-workpracticesdesignedtoelicitgreaterinputorinvolvementfromworkers.Equitytheory-thetheorythatanemployeecompareshisorherjob’sinput-outcomeratiowiththatofrelevantothersandthencorrectsanyinequity.Referents-thepersons,systems,orselvesagainstwhichindividualscomparethemselvestoassessequity.Distributivejustice-perceivedfairnessoftheamountandallocationofrewardsamongindividuals.Expectancytheory-thetheorythatanindividualtendstoactinacertainwaybasedontheexpectationthattheactwillbefollowedbyagivenoutcomeandontheattractivenessofthatoutcometotheindividual.ExpectancyRelationshipsExpectancy(effort-performancelinkage)Theperceivedprobabilitythatanindividual’seffortwillresultinacertainlevelofperformance.InstrumentalityTheperceptionthataparticularlevelofperformancewillresultinattainingadesiredoutcome(reward).ValenceTheattractiveness/importanceoftheperformancereward(outcome)totheindividual.Cross-CulturalChallengesMotivationalprogramsaremostapplicableincultureswhereindividualismandachievementareculturalcharacteristics.UncertaintyavoidanceofsomeculturesinvertsMaslow’sneedshierarchy.Theneedforachievement(nAch)islackinginothercultures.Collectivistculturesviewrewardsas“entitlements”tobedistributedbasedonindividualneeds,notindividualperformance.Motivati