7 Chapter Seven Semantics

2020/3/291ChapterSixSemantics2020/3/292Teachingfocus:1.Leech’ssevenclassificationsofmeaning2.Semantictriangle3.Senserelationsbetweenwordsandsentences2020/3/2931.DefinitionofSemanticsThestudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,esp.thatofthewordsandsentences2020/3/2942.Someviewsortheoriesonsemantics2.1.NamingTheoryThenamingtheorywasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.2020/3/295Thelimitationsofthistheory:Firstofall,thistheoryseemsapplicabletonounsonly,think,hard,slowly”???Besides,withinthecategoryofnouns,therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworldatallandalsonounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjects,butabstractnotions.ghost,dragon,andunicorn”???joy,impulse”???2020/3/2962.2.TheconceptualistviewThistheoryholdsthatwordsandthingsarerelatedthroughthemediationofconceptsofthemind.2020/3/297ThiscanbebestillustratedbytheSemanticTriangleadvancedbyOgdenandRichards.2020/3/298ThoughtorReferenceconceptSymbollinguisticelementssuchaswordsandsentencesReferentobjectetc,intheworldofexperience2020/3/299Weakpoints?Thistheoryraisesanewproblem.Forexample,whatispreciselythelinkbetweenthesymbolandconcept?2020/3/2910Theproblemisthatpeopledon’tactuallytrytoseetheimageofsomethingintheirmind’seyeeverytimetheyutteraword.2020/3/29112.3.ContextualismThemeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context---elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.ArepresentativeofthisapproachwasJ.R.Firth,theleadingBritishlinguistoftheperiod.'Weshallknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps,'2020/3/29122.4.BehaviouristtheoryAccordingtoBloomfield,themeaningofalinguisticformshouldbeviewedas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersit,andtheresponsewhichitcallsforthinthehearer.”2020/3/2913Sr……sRWhenJillseesanappleandwantstohaveit,shehasaphysicalstimulus,(representedbythecapitalletterS),whichgivesrisetoaverbalresponse(r)toJill.Forinstance,shemightsaytoJackI'mthirsty.Whatshesaysresultsina-verbalstimulustoJack(representedbythesmallletters).Thisstimulus,initsturn,leadstoanon-verbalresponsefromJack,suchaspickingtheappleforher.2020/3/2914Somescholarshavesuggestedthatthelinkissimplyapsychologicalone---whenwethinkofaname,wethinkofaconcept.2020/3/2915Accordingtothistheory,thereisnodirectlinkbetweensymbolandreferent(betweenlanguageandtheworld).Thelinkisviathoughtorreference,theconceptsofourminds.2020/3/29163.Leech’ssevenmeaningsConceptualmeaningalsological/cognitive/denotativecontent---therelationbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,orrefersto.Tiger--（animal）+（wild）+（flesh-eating）+（havingatawnycoatstripedwithblack）2020/3/2917Connotativemeaning—additionalinformation,especiallyemotive.BasedonconceptualmeaningConnotativemeaningDenotativemeaningPolitician（derogatory）apersonwhosebusinessispolitics.Statesman（favourable）apoliticalorgovernmentleader.2020/3/2918Stylisticmeaningformal,literary,colloquial,familiar,slang＃Horse—common＃home--commonSteed—poeticresidence--formalNag—slangdomicile--officialGee-gee—child’sabode--poetic＃Throw—general＃diminutive--formalcast—literarytiny--spokenchuck—slangwee--dialect2020/3/2919Theychuckedastoneatthecops,andthendidabunkwiththeloot.Aftercastingastoneatthepolice,theyabscondedwiththemoney.2020/3/2920Affectivemeaningngstoconveythespeaker’sfeelingsorattitudes.Youarevicioustyrantandavillainousreprobate;andIhateyouforit!（throughconceptualmeaning）Janeisanangelofagirl.Thatfellowisanass.（throughconnotativemeaning）2020/3/2921Reflected/associativemeaningTaboowordsonsex:cock,intercourse,ejaculation,erectionEg.Humanlanguageisatoolofsocialintercourse.Euphemisticexpressions:Yoursonisbad.Yoursonissomewhatoutofhissenses.Somewords:Bottomsup!/Cheers!2020/3/2922Collocativemeaningpretty+girl,boy,woman,flower,garden,colour,villagehandsome+boy,man,car,vessel,overcoat,airliner,typewriter2020/3/2923Thematicmeaningmeaningsexpressedbywordorderoremphasis.Smithdonatedthefirstprize.WhatdidSmithdonated？ThefirstprizewasdonatedbySmith.Whodonatedthefirstprize？2020/3/29244.sense/referenceSenseandreferencearethetwotermsoftenencounteredinthestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning2020/3/2925Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform.Itisabstractandde-contextuatized.Itistheaspectofmeaningthatdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Eg.adomesticatedcaninemammal,occurringinmanybreedsthatshowagreatvarietyinsizeandform----dog2020/3/2926Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Eg.Thedogisbarking.2020/3/29275.Majorsenserelations5.Majorsenserelations5.1Synonymy---thesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.2020/3/2928a.Dialectalsynonyms--synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialectsThesearewordswithmoreorlessthesamemeaningusedindifferentregionaldialects.BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglisharethetwomajorgeographicalvarietiesoftheEnglishlanguage.Itisnotdifficulttofindexamplesofsayingthesamethingbyusingdifferentwordsinthetwo