Constructivism-in-Education-建构主义-教育

ConstructivisminEducation:AnoverviewofcontributionstotheliteratureandtotheJPACTeannotatedbibliographyMargaretRichardson,Ed.D.,SUNYCortlandAbstractConstructivismineducationhasevolvedoverthepastcenturyduetothecontributionsofmanyindividualsintheU.S.andabroad.Thisarticleprovidesanoverviewofthecontributionsoftheorists,researchers,andeducatorsmostcloselyassociatedwithitsriseinthefieldofeducation.ThearticlealsoprovidesanoutlineandguidetotheannotatedbibliographyonconstructivismineducationontheJPACTewebsite.IntroductionThisarticleprovidesanoverviewofthedevelopmentofconstructivisttheoryineducation.Ittracestherootsofconstructivismintheareasofeducationalphilosophy,cognitivetheory,researchonteaching,the“socialcurriculum,”professionaldevelopmentandbrainresearch.Thearticlealsoprovidesanannotatedbibliographyalignedwiththesetopics.DefiningConstructivisminEducationConstructivismallowsusas,aseducators,theconceptualtoolswithwhichtoviewourstudentsandhowtheylearninawaythatiscongruentwithbestpractice.Untilrecently,“bestpractice”hasbeendefinedbytraditionalbehavioristdefinitionsfocusedonstudentacademicoutcomes;constructivist“best”practiceisarelativelynewfocusofresearch.“Constructivistbestpractice”inthepasthasbeendefinedbypractitionersandthoseobservingthem:byteacheranecdotalevidence,clinicalobservation,thesuccessofaffectiveandsocialteaching,and,increasingly,thepositiverelationshipofconstructivistteachingandacademicsuccess(Zins,Weissberg,Wang,&Walberg,2004).Constructivismrequiresthatweunderstandthat“(M)eaningisnotgiventousinourencounters,butitisgivenbyus,constructedbyus,eachinourownway,accordingtohowourunderstandingiscurrentlyorganized.”(Duckworth,1987,p.112)(emphasis1added).“Constructivism”referstotheprocessbywhichhumanbeingsactivelymakesenseoutoftheworldaroundthem--to“understand”(Wiske,1998).“Understanding”inaconstructivistuniverseisanindividual’slearningprocessandgoal,anditisalwayscontextualized.“Knowledge,”asfactsoritemstoberemembered,playsasecondaryroletotheunderstandingthatistheheartoftheconstructivistteachingandlearningendeavor(Wiggins&McTighe,1998).Constructivismrequiresthatwereflectonallaspectsoftheteachinginwhichweengage;aseducators,wearelearnersourselves.Wemustexamineourplanning,ouruseofexternalstandards,thematerialsweuse,theenvironmentinourclassroom,ourownattitudesandexpectations,andespecially,theneedsofourstudents,whethertheybechildrenorteachers(Sparks,1994).AGraphicOrganizerforConstructivistTheoryinEducationThedevelopmentofconstructivisminfieldofeducationcanbevisualizedwiththegraphicorganizerfoundinFigure1.Itwasdesignedbyateamofthreeresearchersatthe2005AnnualConstructivistDesignConferenceheldatSt.LawrenceUniversityinCanton,NY.(Ahad,Brockhuis,&Richardson,2005)2Figure1,AGraphicOrganizerforConstructivisminEducation(Ahad,Brockhuis,&Richardson,2005)BrainResearch&ConstructivismConstructivistProfessionalDevelopmentConstructivistDiscipline&TheSocialCurriculumTeachers&TeachingStrategiesCognitiveTheory&ResearchPhilosophy&JohnDeweyConstructivismThecontributionsofvarioustheorists,researchers,andeducatorstothedevelopmentofconstructivismarepresentedbelow,alignedwiththegraphicorganizerinFigure1.Ineachcase,referencestotheirworksarealignedwiththeAnnotatedBibliographythatappearsasacompanionpiecetothisarticle.3ConstructivistPhilosophy–theContributionsofJohnDeweyWhileconstructivistresearchisstillevolvingandhasyettobecompletelyacceptedbyeducatorsandthepublicalike,constructivisttheoryhasarichhistory,mostfamouslyinitiatedbyJohnDewey(Dewey,1916,1933,1938)inhisprogressivemodelforteachingandlearning.Atthebeginningofthe20thcentury,Deweycreateddefensibletheoryforprogressive(ie.learning-centered)educationbasedonpragmaticphilosophy,onthewritingsofRousseau,andonthebestpsychologicalknowledgeofthetime.Hesawtheneedforpublicschoolstobecommunitiesandtoteachtheskillsforcommunityinanincreasinglyindustrial,urban,disaffectedsociety.Healsohadinsightintohowchildrenlearn“best”derivedfromhisownexperienceasaneducator,andfromhisinteractionswithoutstandingteachersoftheday.Bestteaching,forDewey,includedphysicalactivityasanecessarybutnotsufficientpartoflearning.“Internalfreedom”andself-controlwerehisgoalstobeaidedby“externalfreedom.”Deweydidnotstepawayfromacknowledgingtheethicalnatureofpublicschooling.ThefollowingquotefromButchart&McEwan(1998)mightwellillustrateacurrentinterpretationofDewey’sallegiancetotheethicalanddemocraticmandateofthepublicschools:Thequestionisnever,“Whatworks?”–allmannerofbarbarityworks,iftheendisorderlinessalone.Thequestionis,whatworkstoassurethesortsofcivilityanddignitythatisessentialintheshorttermforeffectivelearning,andvitalinthelongrunfordemocraticlife?(page3)Deweyidentifiedhumanlearningasaprocessidenticalwiththescientificprocess,thusrequiringteachersandstudentstovieweducationasanactivelearningprocess,ina“minds-on”senseaswellasa”hands-on”sense.Inthisscientificapproachtolearning,hesupportedrigorousacademicpursuit.WhileDeweypromotedakindofschoolingthatincludedemotionalandsocialelements,itisofutmostimportancetoustoday,toheedDewey’sargumentforpr