经济学人2016年3月26日The-meaning-of-blue-jeans

LexingtonThemeaningofbluejeansDenim’shistorysuggeststhatAmericanattitudestoworkaremorecomplexthantheyseemMar26th2016|FromtheprinteditionINANinterviewneartheendofhiscareerthefashiondesignerYvesSaintLaurentconfessedtoaregret:thathehadnotinventedbluejeans.“Theyhaveexpression,modesty,sexappeal,simplicity,”sighedtheowlishFrenchman.“AllIhopeforinmyclothes.”Americandenim-loversmightaddotherattributes.Asfarbackasthe1930s,whenthepopularityofcowboyfilmshelpedjeansmaketheleapfromworkwearintothewardrobesofHollywoodstars,denimhasbeenunderstoodtostandforsomethinglargerabouttheAmericanspirit:forruggedindividualism,informalityandaclasslessrespectforhardwork.“DeepdownineveryAmerican’sbreast…isalongingforthefrontier,”enthusedVoguemagazinein1935,advisingreadersonhowtodresswithtrue“Westernchic”(combinejeanswithaStetsonhatand“agreatfreeairofBravado,”itcounselled).LeviStrauss&Co.,theSanFranciscofirmwhichinventedmodernbluejeansin1873,sawsalesboomafteritcraftedpostersshowingdenim-cladcowboystotingsaddlesandkissingcowgirls.Jumptothe1950sand1960s,andAmericanconsumerslearnedtheheroichistoryofdenimfromnationwidemagazineandtelevisionadvertisingcampaigns.Theyweretoldthatthetoughblueclothbeganlifeas“SergedeNîmes”,intheFrenchtownofthatname,andwasusedbyColumbusforhisships’sails,beforeoutfittingthepioneerswhotamedtheWest.Inacountrysooftenrivenbyculturewars,jeanscrossedlinesofideology,class,genderandrace.PresidentsfromJimmyCarteronwardshaveworndenimwhenfishing,clearingbrushorplayingsportstosignaltheireverymancredentials—thoughBarackObamahasenduredmockeryfordonningcapaciousjeansthathelaterconcededwere“alittlefrumpy”.Sincethesecondworldwar,whenGIsandsailorstookbluejeanstotheOldWorldandAsia,denimhascarriedideasofAmericanlibertyaroundtheglobe,oftenleavinggovernmentsscramblingtocatchup.EmmaMcClendon,acuratorattheFashionInstituteofTechnology(FIT)inNewYork,notesinafinenewbook,“Denim:Fashion’sFrontier”,thatwhentheBerlinWallcamedownin1989,reportersweresurprisedtoseeyoungEastBerlinersdressedexactlyliketheircousinsfromtheWest—instonewashedjeans.MsMcClendon’sbookaccompaniesasmallbutsplendidexhibitionondenimattheFITonSeventhAvenue.ThepopularityofclothinginventedtosurvivehardlabourisoftopicalinterestinAmerica,acountrygrippedbyelection-yeardebatesaboutblue-collar,working-classvoters,andwhethertheirinterestshavebeenignoredbyrulingelites.MsMcClendonargues,persuasively,thatmuchofwhatAmericansthinktheyknowaboutdenimdrawsonasetof“originmyths”,craftedanddisseminatedbymanufacturersovermanyyears,bothindividuallyandincampaignsrunbytheDenimCouncil,anindustrygroupofclothing-makersandtextilemillsthatwasactivefrom1955-75.Thecouncil,whosepapersarenowintheFIT’sarchives,wasformedafterjeans-cladmotorcyclegangsandsuchfilmsas“TheWildOne”and“RebelWithoutaCause”ledtosomethinglikeanationwidepanicaboutdenimanditsunseemlyeffectsonyoungbodiesandminds.Committeesofdenimmanufacturersandadvertisingexecutivessetouttocombat“anxietiesoverjuveniledelinquency”.Wholesomefilmsaboutjeansappearedonover70televisionstations,and“HowItAllBegan”cartoonsraninnewspapers,tracingtheoriginsofdenimbacktomedievalEurope.Fromthelate1950sLeviStrauss&Co.ranadvertisementsandaletter-writingcampaignurgingschoolstoallowstudentstoattendclassesindenim.Theirpitchcombinedimagesofclean-cut,studiouschildreninjeanswithsuchslogansas“RightforSchool”,explainsTraceyPanek,Levi’scompanyhistorian.Quitealotofthismarketingwashokum,orclosetoit.ThereisnoevidencethatColumbuscrossedoceansunderbillowingdenimsails,whilethelatestresearchisthattheterm“denim”mayhavebeeninventedinEngland.Perhapsmoststrikingly,relativelyfewcowboysworebluejeansattheheightoftheWildWest,MsMcClendonsays:canvasandleathertrouserswerealsocommon.Denimwasmostlywornbysmallfarmers,field-hands,labourersandminers—someoftheoldestpiecesinthearchivesofLeviStrauss&Co.werefoundindisusedminesinCaliforniaandNevada(thereisawholeworldofdenim-huntersoutthere,willingtoenduremuchhardshiptofindapairof1880sLevi’s).ThebesthistorymoneycanbuyMsMcClendondescribeseconomicandcommercialforcesatworkinthe1930s.Denimsalestoworking-classcustomersslumpedduringtheDepression.Atthesametimeranchersinneedofextraincometoutedtheirpropertiesas“duderanches”atwhichaffluenttouristscouldplayatcowboys,apeingfavouritefilmstars.EvenDepression-eraprotectionismarguablyplayedarole:SandraComstock,asociologistatReedCollegeinOregon,haswrittenthattariffsonimportedFrenchclothingproddeddepartmentstorestopromotedomesticfashionsincludingjeans.Myth-makingaboutjeanssuggestsapoliticalconclusion,too:thatforasupposedlyclasslesscountryAmericatakesacomplicatedviewofwork.Studydenim’shistoryanditishardtoavoidconcludingthatheroicindividualsroamingtheland,suchascowboys,areeasiertosellasfashioniconsthanfolkwhotoilbythehourinafactory,garageorfield,takingordersfromaboss.ThefirstgalleryattheFITexhibitionshowshowtheearliestdenimclotheswereoftenuniforms:itincludesaprisonuniform,sailor’soverallsand,mosttellingly,thesortofbluework-shirtmadeofchambray(acousinofdenim)thatinspiredtheterm“blue-collarworker”backinthe1920s.Yet,otherthantoafewur