第十四讲Input--Interaction-&-Output

Input,Interaction&OutputtheRoleofInputinSLAThoughalmostalltheoriesagreethatinputisnecessaryinacquisition,theydifferintheattitudetowardstheimportanceofit.theRoleofInputinSLABehaviouristviewoftheroleofinput•Behaviouristholdsthatimitation(andreinforcement)oflanguageinputistheprimarymechanisminlanguageacquisition.•InBehaviorism,inputwaseverything.–Withoutinput,learningcannotoccurMentalistviewoftheroleofinput•Theyemphasizetheimportanceofthelearner’s‘blackbox’.InputisstillseenasessentialforL2acquisition,butitisonlya‘trigger’thatstartsinternallanguageprocessing.Inputisinsufficienttoenablelearnerstoarriveattherulesofthetargetlanguage.Krashen’sviewoftheroleofinput•Krashenhasbeenthemostardentandpersistentonetotheinput.Inhistheory,hegivesthedefinition“humansacquirelanguageinonlyoneway--byunderstandingmessages,or[thatis]byreceivingcomprehensibleinput”(Krashen,1985).theRoleofInputinSLACordermadeanimportantdistinctionbetweenwhathecalledinputandintake.Input=languagetowhichlearnerisexposedIntake=whatisinternalized,takeninbythelearner•3stagesinturninginputintointake–UnderstandanL2i+1form(meaning)–NoticeagapbetweenanL2i+1formandtheILrulewhichthelearnercurrentlycontrols(lateromitted,asacquisitiontakesplaceentirelyincidentallyorwithoutawareness)–Thei+1formreappears.•SimplifyingInput•Ferguson(1971)noticedthatlanguagedirectedat‘linguisticallydeficient’individuals(childrenorNNSs)isgenerallysimplified.NSsconstantlymakeadjustmentstotheirspeechintheareasofpronunciation,grammar,andthelexiconinordertofacilitatecomprehensionbytheotherinterlocutor–Hecalledspeechdirectedatchildren“babytalk”andspeechdirectedatNNSs“foreignertalk”–NowthesearecalledMothereseorChild-directedspeechandForeignerTalkDiscourseForeignertalk•Otherlessobviouscharacteristics:–Restating–Repeating–Elaboratingonresponse•i.e.,moreinformationaidscomprehension–Specifyindefiniteparticles•i.e.,clarifypronouns–Clarifygrammaticalelements•i.e.,addingorrestatingsubject,auxiliaryverb,etc.•Overall,foreignertalkisvariableandcomesaboutwithconstantreassessmentduringconversation.UsefulnessofFTD•EasiertounderstandforL2learner•Inputthatisunderstoodfacilitateslearning(althoughdoesnotguaranteelearning)•Studiesshowthatsomeforeignertalkismorecomprehensiblethanothers–Discourseelaboration,modifiedconversationalstructurearemorebeneficialthanlinguisticmodifications•UsefulnessofFTD•Ithasbeenshownthatsimplificationsresultingfromdiscourseelaborationormodificationoftheconversationalstructurearemorelikelytoaidcomprehensionthanthosesimplificationsaimedatthelinguisticlevel•Long’sinteractionalhypothesis(anextensionofKrashen’sInputhypothesis)–3steps•Linguistic/conversationaladjustmentspromotecomprehensionofinput.•Comprehensibleinputpromotesacquisition.•Therefore,linguistic/conversationaladjustmentspromoteacquisition.•positsthatinteractionbetweenanon-nativespeaker(NNS)andanativespeaker(NS),ornon-nativespeakerofahigherlevel,createsanaturalisticSecondLanguageAcquisitionenvironmentwheretheNNSlearnsthroughnegotiationofmeaningand/orbecomingawareofgapsintheirtargetlanguageknowledge.•TheInteractionHypothesishastakenasbasicthenotionthatconversationisnotonlyamediumofpractice,butalsothemeansbywhichlearningtakesplace,morespecificallywhenitcomestothenegotiationofmeaning(Gass)•EspeciallynegotiationworkthattriggersinteractionaladjustmentsbytheNativeSpeakerormorecompetentinterlocutor,facilitatesacquisitionbecauseitconnectsinput,internallearnercapacities,particularlyselectiveattention,andoutputinproductiveways(Long1996,pp.451-2).Elementsofinteraction•Interactionoftenrequiresnegotiationbetweentheinterlocutors–Questionparticularcomponents–Requestclarification–Requestconversationalhelp•Negotiationallowstheconversationtoproceedandallowsspeakerstomaintain‘equalfooting’inaconversation.•InNNSinteractions,negotiationisfrequentandusuallynecessarytocontinuetheconversation.TheInteractionHypothesis•SLAtakesplacethroughconversationalinteraction.•Long(1983)arguedthatmodifiedinteractionisthenecessarymechanismformakinglanguagecomprehensible.•Whatlearnersneedisnotnecessarilysimplificationofthelinguisticformsbutratheranopportunitytointeractwithotherspeakers,workingtogethertoreachmutualcomprehension.•Researchshowsthatnativespeakersconsistentlymodifytheirspeechinsustainedconversationwithnon-nativespeakers.TheInteractionHypothesis•Long’soriginalformulation(1983)oftheInteractionHypothesis:1.Interactionalmodificationmakesinputcomprehensible;2.Comprehensibleinputpromotesacquisition;Therefore,3.Interactionalmodificationpromotesacquisition.TheInteractionHypothesis•Modifiedinteractioninvolveslinguisticsimplificationsandconversationalmodifications.–Examplesofconversationalmodifications:elaboration,slowerspeechrate,gesture,additionalcontextualcues,comprehensionchecks,clarificationrequests,andself-repetitionorparaphrase.•ResearchhasdemonstratedthatconversationaladjustmentscanaidcomprehensionintheL2.TheInteractionHypothesis•Long’srevisedversion(1996)oftheInteractionHypothesis:-moreemphasisisplacedontheimportanceofcorrectivefeedbackduringinteraction.-“