Chapter-4--From-Word-to-Text1

Chapter4FromWordtoTextSYNTAXisthestudyoftherulesgoverningthedifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructure.4.1.1SyntacticRelations①Positionalrelations②relationsofsubstitutablility③Relationsco-occurrenceThewaystomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause:positionalrelation(wordorder)andaffixation※Positionalrelations,referstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguageEg.a)theboykickedtheball.(wordoccursinafixedorderrequiredbytheconvention)b)*Boytheballkickedthe(ungrammatical,nonsensical)C)Theteachersawthestudents(samewordsoppositemeanings)D)thestudentssawtheteacher.Positionalrelations是索绪尔横组合关系（SyntagmaticRelations）的一方面，被列为划分语言的三种基本方法之一。按此法，语言可分六种类型：SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,VOS英语属于SVO※relationsofsubstitutablility1referstotheclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure2referstogroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset(特定集合中的单个语词)Eg.1The------smiles.2The--------smilesman(verticalRela)prettygirlgirl(paradigmaticRel)strongmanboytallestboyWordsmorethanoneword※Relationsofco-occurrence,partlybelongtosyntagmaticrelations,partlytoparadigmaticrelations,meansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermitorrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularorpartofasentence.4.2Grammaticalconstruction（GC）andItsConstituent(语法结构与成分)GCcanbeusedtomeananysyntacticconstructwhichisassignedoneormoreconventionalfunctionsinalanguage.Onthelevelofsyntax:externalsyntaxofconstruction;internalsyntaxofconstructionex-referstothepropertiesoftheconstructionsasawhole(结构的外部特征是只整体结构所具有的特征)Terms:clausaltype,phrasaltypeIn-isadescriptionoftheconstructionsmakeupTerns：subject，predicate，object,,determiner,nounEg.SVO(clausaltype)Maryateanapple.4.2.2ImmediateConstituentsConstituent,instructuralsentenceanalysis,isforeverylinguisticunit,whichisapartoflargelinguisticunit.ThewaytodismantleagrammaticalconstructioniscalledImmediateConstituentAnalysisorICanalysisSyntacticcategoriesareusedtolabeltheNodeWORD-LEVELPHRASALN=nounNP=nounphraseA=adjectiveAP=adjectivephraseDet.=determinerVP=verbphraseAdv=adverbPP=prepositionphraseConj.=ConjunctionS=sentenceorclauseTreeDiagramBracking(（The)(boy)）（（ate）（（the）（apple）））EndocentricandExocentricConstructionsEndocentric:VP,NP,AP都有Centralhead/HEADCo-ordination(doublyheaded)Subordination(thesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifytheHead)Subclauses:Complementclauses,adjunct(oradverbial)clause,relativeclause4.3SyntacticFunctionTerms:Subject,object,predicator,modifier,complementSUBJECT:grammaticalsubject&logicalsubjectThetopicofasentenceisnotalwaysthegrammaticalsubjectThecharacteristicsofSubjects1wordorderSordinarilyprecedestheverbinstatement2pro-forms:thefirstandthirdpersonpronounsI,heinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhentheyareasubject.3Agreementwithverb:Inthesimplepresenttense,an-sisaddedtotheverbwhenathirdpersonsubjectissingular.4contentquestion:主语为疑问代词代替时，句子其他成分不变5Tagquestion反疑疑问句Predicateincludessuchasverb,object,complement,etcPredicatorissuggestedforverborverbsinapredicateObject:DirectObjectIndirectObjectAccusativecasedativeobjectObjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomesubjectinapassivetransformation被动句中可变成主语的项目4.4Category,referstotheclassesandfunctionsinanarrowsense,eg.N,V,subject,predicate,NP,VPCategoryofnoun:Number---singular,dual,pluralGender----masculine,feminine,neuter,animate,inanimateCase------isusedinanalysisofwordtoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentenceCountability---countable,uncountableCategoryofverb:tense,aspect,voiceInEnglish,caseisaspecialformofthenounwithfrequentlycorrespondstoacombinationofaprepositionandnoun,anditisrealizedin3channels:ainflectionbfollowingaprepositioncwordorder,AkickedB,BkickedAAGREEMENT4.5Phrase,Clause,andSentence4.5.1PHRASEisasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanonewordandlackingthesubject-predicatestructureofclause.Itispositionedbetweenclauseandword.AWORDGROUPisanextensionofwordsofaparticularclassbywayofmodificationwithitsmainfeaturesoftheclassunchangedeg.rightbehind,allalalong4.5.2CLAUSE,aconstituentwithitsownsubjectandpredicate,itisincludedinalargersentenceFiniteclauseClauseNon-finiteclause:infinitivephrase,participialphrase,gerundialphrase.动名词4.5.3SentenceTraditionally,SERTENCEistheminimumpartoflanguagethatexpressesacompletethought.Basedonwordclasses,Bolinger1968提出五种基本句子类型：1.NP+Vi.2.NP+Linkingverb+COMPLEMENT3.NP+Vt.+NP4.N+Vt.+NP+NP5.THERE+存在性动词+NPQuirk,etal1972,根据句子成分的语法功能介绍了七种句子类型：1.SVC2.SVA3.SV4.SVO5.SVOC6.SVOA7.SVOO4.6Recursiveness,mainlymeansthataphrasalconstitunentcanbeembeddedwithinanotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory.Recursiveness,togetherwithopenness,isgenerallyregardedasthecoreofcreativityoflanguage.4.6.1Conjoining,referstotheprocesswhereoneclauseiscoordinatedorconjoinedwithanotherEmbedding,referstothemeansbywhichoneclauseisincludedinthesentencemainclauseinsyntacticsubordinationsubordinateclause4.7.1SententialCo