An Introduction to Linguistics 1

AnIntroductiontoLinguisticsXiaJIasiOct,[e-mail]s1.TheOriginofLanguage1.1Creation(p22)AndoutofthegroundtheLordGodformedeverybeastofthefield,andeveryfowloftheair;andbroughtthemuntoAdamtoseewhathewouldcallthem;andwhatsoever.Adamcalledeverylivingcreature,thatwasthenamethereof.(Chapter219Genesis)Theconfusionoftongues(Chapter11)Andthewholeearthwasofonelanguage,andofonespeech.Anditcametopass,astheyjourneyedfromtheeast,thattheyfoundaplaininthelandofShinar;andtheydweltthere.…Andtheysaid,Goto,letusbuildusacityandatower,whosetopmayreachuntoheaven;andletusmakeusaname,lestwebescatteredabroaduponthefaceofthewholeearth.AndtheLordcamedowntoseethecityandthetower,whichthechildrenofmenbuilded.TheconfusionoftonguesAndtheLordsaid,Behold,thepeopleisone,andtheyhaveallonelanguage;andthistheybegintodo;andnownothingwillberestrainedfromthemwhichtheyhaveimaginedtodo.Goto,letusgodown,andthereconfoundtheirlanguage,thattheymaynotunderstandoneanother’sspeech.SotheLordscatteredthemabroadfromthenceuponthefaceofalltheearth;andtheyleftofftobuildthecity.ThereforeisthenameofitcalledBabel;becausetheLorddidthereconfoundthelanguageofalltheearth;andfromthencedidtheLordscatteredthemabroaduponthefaceofalltheearth.许慎说文解字（许国璋）古者庖牺氏之王天下也,仰则观象于天,俯则观法于地,视鸟兽之文,与地之宜,近取诸身,远取诸物,于是始作《易》八卦,以垂宪象.及神农氏,结绳为治而统其事。(结绳文字产生前的一种记事方法。用绳打结，以不同形状和数量的绳结标记不同事件。“上古结绳而治，后世圣人易之以书契。”“古者无文字，其有约誓之事，事大大其绳，事小小其绳，结之多少，随物众寡，各执以相考，亦足以相治也。”)仓颉之初作书，盖依类像形、故谓之文。其后形声相益，即谓之字。文者，物象之本，字者，言孳乳而寝多也。1.2Evolutionwesuggestthatlanguageemergedfromthecombinationof(i)naturalselectionforincreasinglybettermentalrepresentationabilitiesduringanimalevolution(thinking,mentalsyntax)and(ii)naturalselectionduringrecenthumanevolutionforthehumanabilitytosing,andfinally(iii)memeticselectionthatonlyrecently(withinthelast100,000years)reusedthesepriorlyevolvedabilitiestocreatelanguage.Thus,speech-theuseofsymbolicsoundslinkedgrammatically-issuggestedtobelargelyaculturalphenomenon,linkedtotheUpperPalaeolithic(旧石器时代的)revolution.TheOriginofLanguageTheabilitytosingprovidedthephysicalapparatusandneuralrespirationalcontrolthatisnowusedbyspeech.Theabilitytoacquiresongbecamethemeansbywhichchildrenareabletolinkanimalmentalsyntaxwithsyntaxofspokenlanguage.Severalstudiesstronglyindicatethatthisisachievedbychildrenthroughamelody-basedrecognitionofintonation,pitch,andmelodysequencingandphrasing.Language,wethusconjecture,owesitsexistencenottoinnatelanguagelearningcompetencies,buttoinnatemusic-associatedones,which-unlikethecompetencieshypothesizedforlanguage-canbestraightforwardlyexplainedtohaveevolvedbynaturalselection.1.3InventionPrimaryOnomatopoeiaApesgibberBearsgrowlBullsbellowCatsmew(purr)EaglesscreamFrogscroakGoatsbleatAssesbrayBeetlesdroneCamelsgruntDucksquackFliesbuzzGeesecackle(gabble)Horsesnay(snort)PrimaryOnomatopoeiaHenscluckLionsroarMicesqueakPigeonscooPuppiesyelpSnakeshissTurkeysgobbleLarkswarbleMagpieschatterOwlshoot(screech)Pigssqueal(grunt)Ravens(乌鸦)croakThrushes(画眉)whistleWolveshowl2.Whatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.LanguageissystematicTwobasicsystems:asystemofsoundsandasystemofmeanings.Twolevelsofstructure:atonelevel,elementshavenomeaningthemselves.Theyhavemeaningwhencombinedtoformunitsatanotherlevel.Rules:asetoforganizingprinciplesthatcontrolanysystemoflanguage.LanguageissymbolicSemiologyorsemiotics:thedisciplinetostudytheworkingsofsignsNaturalsigns:theydon’tdependonthewhim(Asuddenorcapriciousidea)ofmanandstandinaniconicorpicturingrelationtowhattheysignify(themirrorimage).Conventionalsign:asignestablishedbyconventionandmayhaveconnectionwiththethingsignified,e.g.maps,words.ModernsemioticsModernsemioticshasoriginatedfromtwofoundingfathers,C.S.PeirceandFerdinanddeSaussure.Saussuredesignatedverballanguageasonesignsystem.Threeterms:langage(泛言语活动）Hecategorizeditintotwo:langue(theabstractsystemofrulesunderlyingspeech语言)andparole(humanspeech言语).SaussureSaussurediscardedparoleasanimpossibleobjectforsystematicstudyandhedividedlangueintotwo:thesynchronic(共时),thestudyofstagesoflanguage;andthediachronic(历时),thestudyofchangesinthesystemovertime.Hedescribedsynchroniclanguagephenomenaontwoaxes:theplaneofcombinationandtheplaneofselection,thatisthesyntagmatic(横组合)orparadigmatic(纵聚合)planes.Signsthemselveshaveadoubleform,consistingofsignifiers(能指)(carriersofmeaning)andsignifieds(所指)(theconceptofmeaning).Thesignifierhasadoubleform,madeupofamaterialentityandanimageofthatentity,whichisamentalevent.PeirceSign,objectandinterpretant（释素）Asign,orrepresentamen,issomethingwhichstandstosomebodyforsomethinginsomerespectorcapacity.(符号或表现体是某种对某人来说在某一方面或以某种能力代表某一事物的东西)Arepresentamenisasubjectofatriadicrelation.Toasecond,calleditsObject,forathird,calleditsinterpretant,thistriadicrelationbeingsuchthattheRepresentamendeterminesitsinterpretanttostandinthesametriadicrelationtothesameobjectforsomeinterpretant.Icon,index,symbol图像符号;指示符号;象征符号,语符Peircehasahelpfulclassificationofsigns.Therearethreemajortypes:icon(basedonid